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Suggestions to Teachers. 


THE EARTH AS A PLANET. 

T O make the quadrant instrument to be used for measuring altitudes in 
Exercises I. and IV.: Make a quadrant circle of cardboard, or better, of 
tin, with a radius of about three inches. (Fig. i.) With a protractor 
mark the degrees and number every fifth degree. Tack the quadrant upon the 
edge of a small wooden block so that it will stand in a vertical plane; be sure the 

edge of the quadrant is parallel with the 
bottom of the block as in B. Cut a piece 
of tin of the shape and twice the size of 
A. Bend a over b and bend c over b to 
form a right angle. This piece of tin will 
serve as a rider to be moved up and 
down on the circumference of the quad¬ 
rant. Stick a pin into the block at the 
center of curvature. A simple water 
level may be fixed to the block to aid in 
finding the horizon, as shown in the lower 
part of the figure. Take the altitude by 
setting the instrument on a horizontal 
support and sighting across the pin and 
rider; for the sun, make the shadow of 
the rider fall on the pin. 

A still simpler quadrant instrument may 
be made by each pupil on the cover of 
his note book or on a thin board. 
(Fig. II.) Draw a semicircle about a 
point A in the center of the edge of the 
cover. Point off every five degrees, be¬ 
ginning with o at the central point of 
the semi-circle. Fasten a pin in the point 
A and from it drop a small thread. On 
the end B fix a split shot, thus making a plumbline. By sighting along the edge 
of the cover, at the point to be measured, and holding the plumbline securely in 
the place it falls, the altitude of the point may be read. This instrument is 
especially adapted for measurement of altitudes in field work. Its disadvantage 

lies in the fact that the angle indicated is not 
identical with the angle measured. If this instru¬ 
ment is used the instructor should explain the 
equality of the two angles. 

The object of Exercise I. is to familiarize the 
pupils with the practical measurement and delinea¬ 
tion of angles. It is a simple exercise with which 
to initiate a class into laboratory work. 

Exercise VII. should be started immediately after 
Exercise I. is completed. This work is intended 
for out-of-school observation work. It extends 
over several months. The instructor will need to 
keep the subject in mind, provide facilities for the 
work, and question the pupils repeatedly about 
their progress. Under VII., i, as in several other 
places, favorable times for observation should be 
designated by the instructor. 

Demonstrations to precede Exercise II. (a) Use 
a globe to show the shape of the earth and the 
appearance of latitude and longitude lines when 
the globe is held in different positions, (b) To 
show oblateness of the sphere due to rotation use 
the rotary machine with the brass hoop attachment. 

I 

























Exercise II. should be done by each pupil, though they may work in pairs. Each 
globe should be furnished with a tin or wire hoop, just large enough to allow the 
globe to turn within it. Pins may be used to mark this circle of illumination, but 
they injure the globe and consume much time. The axis of the globe should be 
set vertically during Exercise II. 

Demonstration to follow Exercise III. Discuss Mercator’s, conical, and other pro¬ 
jections to familiarize the pupils with the appearances, sizes, etc., of land masses 
when represented by the different projections. 

The horizon circle used in Exercise IV. may be easily manufactured by cutting 
a broad circle out of tin or stiff cardboard, having the diameter of its hole the 
same as that of the globe. Two pieces of heavy wire should be attached at their 
centers and bent down so as to hold the horizon disc just 90° from any place 
on the globe over which the intersection of the wires is placed. See Fig. III. 
Demonstrations to take the place of, or to supplement Exercises IV. and V. To 
show that rotation produces the alternation of day and night: (a) Hold a 
globe in a beam of light, or with a tin ring separate the imagined light hemi¬ 
sphere from the dark one, having the axis at a right angle to the light rays. As 

the globe rotates watch a point 45 0 N. move 
through the light and the shadow. Incline the 
axis and have the pupils note the difference in the 
length of the day at the same point. By placing 
a ring 18 0 behind the circle of illumination, 
the reason for the difference in the length 
of twilight at different latitudes can be clearly 
demonstrated. (b) Pin to a globe, at your 
latitude, a pasteboard disc, about six inches in 
diameter. This will represent the horizon 
for an observer at the center of the disc. 
Draw an east and west line through the disc, using 
the pole as the center and the distance from the 
pole to the pin as the radius. Draw a north and 
south line along the meridian. Place the globe in 
the proper position to the sun, or to a bright light, 
to represent the time of the year considered. Starting with the horizon disc 
on the night side of the earth, rotate the globe eastward into the sunshine. The 
sun rises for the observer when the pin first casts a shadow on the disc. The 
direction of the shadow shows the place of sunrise. The shadow will shorten 
to noon, the amount of shortening depending upon the season, and will then 
lengthen and finally disappear in a direction opposite to the place of sunset. 
The amount of rotation required to pass the disc from its edgewise position to 
the sun at sunrise, to its edgewise position at sunset, shows the length of day 
for the season considered. In this same way the length of day, the place of 
sunrise and sunset, and the approximate height of the noonday sun, may be 
demonstrated for any place on the globe at any time of the year. From thus 
noticing the shifting of the pin’s shadow across the disc, pupils may be led 
to see the principles involved in a sun dial and some in each division may be 
interested to make one which will keep time roughly from 9 a. m. to 3 p. m. 
In Exercise V. many pupils will find it too difficult a step to determine accur¬ 
ately, the altitude of the sun on March 21, June 21, etc., at the places given. 
It may need to be demonstrated for them that the horizon of any place is 90 0 
from its zenith, and to find the altitude of the sun always subtract the latitude 
of the place from 90° and add the distance of the sun north or south of the 
equator when the sun is in the same hemisphere as the place, and subtract the 
distance of the sun north or south of the equator when it is in the opposite 
hemisphere. 

The results of Exercise VI. should be compared with the correct length of a de¬ 
gree of longitude on the different parallels as given in the table below. Exercise 
VI. may be supplemented by a demonstration to show how the correct actual 
length may be determined mathematically. The length of a degree of longitude, 
on any parallel, may be computed by multiplying tfie length of a degree of 
longitude at the equator by the cosine of the given latitude. This cosine is the 
ratio between the radius of the parallel circle of the given latitude and the radius 
of the equator. 



2 





Table of Cosines and Lengths of Degrees of Longitude. 


Latitude. 

Natural Cosine of angle 

Degree of Long, in miles 

0 

1 0000 

69.172 

10 

.9848 

68.129 

20 

•9397 

65.026 

30 

.8660 

59.956 

40 

.7660 

53.063 

50 

.6428 

44-552 

60 

.5000 

34.674 

70 

.3420 

23.729 

80 

.1736 

12.051 

90 

.0000 

00.000 


Discuss the application of latitude and longitude lines in the survey of United 
States lands, sections, townships, ranges, principal meridians, correction lines, etc. 


THE ATMOSPHERE. 

Demonstrations for the first study of the atmosphere, showing the composition, 
uses, and properties of the atmosphere. 

(a) To show the use of the air in combustion, exhaust the air from a jar in 
which a lighted candle has been placed. 

( b ) To show the relative power of different gases in supporting combustion, 
try to burn a splinter, a piece of sulphur, a watch spring or picture wire and a 
piece of magnesium ribbon, in jars of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. 

(c) To show the relative amount of oxygen in the air, burn the oxygen out 
of a jar which is turned over water. 

( d ) To show the presence of water vapor in the apparently dry atmosphere, 
fill a jar (a calorimeter with a polished surface is good) with ice water, and 
demonstrate the apparent “sweating,” Call attention to the collection of water 
drops and frost on windows. 

( e ) To show the presence of dust in the atmosphere, darken the room to sun¬ 
light except by a narrow opening. To show the large amount which the air 
will hold, clean two dusty erasers near the beam of light. 

LIGHT. 

Demonstrations , to precede Exercise VIII., to show the composition of sunlight 
and refraction of light. 

(a) Throw the solar spectrum upon the wall or a screen. Have the pupils find 
the primary colors. By diagrams show how the light is broken up by the prism, 
and the reason for the arrangement of colors. 

( b ) With a primary color disc, rotating on a rotary machine, blend the colors 
into grayish white. Such a disc can be made easily by painting narrow sectors 
on cardboard. 

(c) Fill a battery jar with water. Place in it, at an angle, a straight rod, as a 
meter stick, and demonstrate the refraction caused by the difference in the density 
of air and water. This may be made still more apparent by floating an inch or 
two of oil on top of the water. 

*“The colors of the sky and clouds should be recorded from direct observation 
by the pupils. . . . The value of sunset colors as weather indicators may 
thus be learned. In our winter climate of rapidly changing weather, a very 
clear sunset usually marks the middle of a fair-weather spell, soon to be fol¬ 
lowed by a change to cloudy weather. The colors in the sky opposite sunrise 
and sunset should also be noted. Very few persons seem to know that the 
dull blue sky under the rosy twilight arch opposite sunrise or sunset is the 
shadow of the earth.” 


♦From The Teacher’s Guide, by W. M. Davis, pp. 37-38. 


3 









MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY. 

Demonstrations to accompany this study. 

(a) To show the nature of lightning. Produce a spark between the poles of 
an electric machine. Compare the knobs to cloud masses and the sound to thun¬ 
der. Insert the edge of a piece of heavily glazed paper, which will cause the 
spark to run over the surface of the paper. Allow the spark to perforate softer 
paper. Show the attraction between pith balls and an electrified gutta-percha 
ruler or glass rod. Show the natural magnetic properties of a piece of mag¬ 
netite. The isogonic map required for Exercise IX., 3, may have to be made by 
the instructor. A good map is to be found in the appendix of Tarr’s New 
Physical Geography. 

HEAT. 

Parts of Exercise X. require gas or other means of heat in the laboratory, and 
may need to be omitted in many cases. These parts are therefore given here 
in a more complete form for demonstrations. They may be used to supplement 
the laboratory work and should then follow Exercise IX. 

(a) To show the effect of heat on a solid. Provide a board about two feet 
long and four or six inches wide. (Fig. IV.) Take a brass rod about one- 
fourth inch in diameter and two feet long (a), and bend about six inches of one 
end to a right angle. Fasten the bent end firmly into the board, near one end, ' 
so that the long arm will be parallel with the board. Attach one end of a small 
brass wire, about three feet long, to the board underneath the free end of the 
rod, and solder or wire the two together, allowing the wire to extend above the 
rod. Another wire should extend up beside the first, but not touching the rod. 
Place the two wires in line and heat the horizontal rod by passing a flame along 
it. The effect of expansion wiil be shown by the end of the pointer moving 
away from the stationary wire. When the rod cools, the two wires will again 
coincide. 

( b) To show the effect of heat on a 
liquid. Provide a small flask with a rub¬ 
ber stopper having two holes. Put a ther¬ 
mometer into one hole and a glass tube 
Fig. IV. about two feet long into the other. Fill 

the flask with colored water so that when the stopper is pressed into place the 
water will stand in the tube two or three inches above the stopper. Heat the 
flask on a sand bath and note how many inches the water rises for every degree 
of increase in temperature. 

( c ) To show the effect of heat on a gas. Use a similar flask and tube as in (b), 
but without the hole in the stopper for a thermometer. Immerse the free end 
of the tube in water contained in a glass vessel. By holding the hands around 
the flask, bubbles of air will escape through the water. Raise the heat of the flask 
by friction rubbing and note the result. Heat the flask further with a flame and 
much more air will be driven out. When the flame is withdrawn water will be 
forced up the tube into the flask, taking the place of air driven out by expansion. 

( d ) The boiling point of water may be demonstrated as in Exercise X., 2, if it 
is impossible for the pupils to do it in the laboratory, but this exercise should be 
supplemented by the following demonstration to show the effect of decreased 
atmospheric pressure on the boiling point: Have a connection at hand that 
will fit tightly into the extra hole of the stopper and connect with the air pump 
or exhaust bulb. Boil the water in the flask and cool till all boiling stops and the 
thermometer shows decreased temperature. Exhaust the air in the flask until the 
boiling starts. Read the temperature. How does the decreased pressure affect 
the boiling point? Discuss the effects of high altitude on the boiling point and 
on cooking. 

To make the helior to be used in Exercise XL for determining the relative 
amounts of sunlight received on the earth’s surface from the sun at different 
altitudes. Make a square tube having four square inches of inner measurement 



4 






at each end, and attach it with a hinge to 
the middle of a board of the same width 
and twice the length. Fasten to one edge 
of the board a wooden quadrant for read¬ 
ing the angle of elevation of the tube. See 
Fig. V. By adjusting a candle in front of 
the tube, measurement of the lighted sur¬ 
face may be made at any angle, or the 
space may be determined by sighting 
through the tube at a ruler which is laid 
Fig. V. on the base parallel with its edge. 

The hourly temperature record required in Exercise XII. may be obtained 
from the nearest Weather Bureau Station. Care should be taken to get a record 
for days of normal temperature changes for this exercise. 

The isothermal and range charts required in Exercise XIII. are found in 
all text books, but some of them are very indistinct. In such a case the instructor 
should make large wall charts showing the required data. The value of this Ex¬ 
ercise is not to be found in the copying, but in the preparation for the Exercises 
further along. 

The table in Exercise XIV., containing the weather map data, is taken from 
Dryer’s Lessons in Physical Geography, page 411, and makes a good map. For 
more data see Ward’s Exercises in Meteorology. The instructor should make a 
map and read the data from the map in order, or should instruct the class to begin 
at one corner of the map and look up the data required for each place named 
on the map in the alphabetical list given. Otherwise a great loss of time will 
occur by attempting to look up the places as they occur in the table. 

Exercise XV. should be followed by several demonstrations to show the effects 
of atmospheric pressure in pumps, syringes, etc., to enforce the realization 
that the water is not sucked up but pressed up. 

Demonstrations to follow Exercise XV. (a) To show the principle of a 
mercurial barometer. Fill a Torticelli tube with mercury. Place the finger 
over the open end and invert the tube in an evaporating dish half filled with 
mercury. By pressing upon the surface of the mercury in the bath the pressure 
causing high barometer may be demonstrated. 

( b ) To show that air has weight. Solder a bicycle valve into a one or two 
quart air-tight tin can. An ether can is best. Weigh the can; pump air into it 
and weigh again. 

( c ) To show the pressure of the atmosphere. Exhaust the air from under 
a bell jar, try to remove it from the base. 

( d ) Fit a large tin can, such as an old syrup can, with a tight cork. Put in 
enough water to cover the bottom to the depth of about an inch. Heat till 
steam is escaping rapidly. Remove the flame and quickly stopper the can 
tightly. As it cools the air pressure will cause a collapse of the can. The cooling 
may be hastened by flowing cold water over the can. 

If the class has not kept the barometric readings previously the instructor will 
need to furnish the barometric data for Exercise XVI. This may be obtained 
from the nearest Weather Bureau station. It may be best procured from a series 
of weather maps, and in this case the accompanying weather data should be given 
to the class. 

Demonstration to precede Exercise XIX., to show the convection currents in 
liquids. Construct a convection tube (Fig. VI) by bending a glass tube three 
feet in length into a square. Fill with water which contains some floating par¬ 
ticles, like the dried residue of an ink-well, and connect the ends of the tube 
with a piece of rubber tubing. Heat one corner of the tube to produce the 
current. It may be worth while to boil water in a large beaker or broad shallow 
pan with a flame under its center to show the formation of currents through¬ 
out less circumscribed areas that the application of the principle may be more 
easily made to wind currents. 



5 







The following demonstration may be substituted for Exercise XIX., i, if desired. 
Make an inch hole in a stiff cardboard or a board, and four or five inches from 

it, around a circle as large as a candle, make 
several small holes. Put the cardboard over a 
large battery jar and place Argand chimneys 
over the openings (Fig. VII). Place a lighted 
Acandle within the circle of holes, and by hold¬ 
ing a piece of smoking waste or cotton cloth 
over the other chimney the direction of the air 
current may be readily demonstrated. If the 
cotton has been soaked in a saturate solution of 
saltpeter and dried a good volume of smoke 
will be made. 

To show the application of this principle to 
ventilation. To show how two small openings 
are better than one larger one. Place an Ar¬ 
gand chimney over a piece of burning candle 
and it soon goes out. If the chimney be di¬ 
vided lengthwise into two compartments by a 
strip of tin which reaches down nearly to the 
flame, the candle will continue to burn. Smok¬ 
ing waste will show the circulation. 

Fig. VI. Ask the pupil to make a diagram and explain 

the circulation of the hot water from the tank attached to the kitchen range; 
also to describe the movements of air near the parlor lamp. (The movement 
can be detected by the flame of a lighted match held close to the lamp.) 

If the preceding Exercises have been done comprehendingly the pupils should 
be able to determine the equatorial air currents as called for in Exercise XX. It 

may be necessary to review the causal condi¬ 
tions in a class quiz before attempting Exer¬ 
cise XX. The Pilot charts for Exercise XX., 
2. for both the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans, 
may be procured from the United States Hy¬ 
drographic office, Washington, D. C. A state¬ 
ment should accompany the request, stating 
what use is to be made of the charts. Old 
charts will do as well as the more recent ones. 

Demonstrations to follow Exercise XX., show¬ 
ing the causes for the deflection of the plane¬ 
tary winds. Any one of the following may 
be used, but often it is the case that one demon¬ 
stration will appeal to some of the class and 
another will be needed for the others. 


Fie VII ( a ) On a globe show that the air currents mov¬ 

ing toward the equator are going into latitudes 
in which the degrees are longer, consequently the currents are going from more 
slowly moving to more rapidly moving areas, and the winds would be deflected 
to the west. This is easily shown by rotating the globe with one hand while 
with the other a piece of chalk is drawn rapidly from a point on the globe 
about 30° N. directly toward a point in the floor opposite the South Pole. 
The same thing may be shown for the poleward currents. 

( b ) Ferrell’s Law may be nicely illustrated as follows: 

Bodies of air, and all other bodies, in motion continue to move in the same direc¬ 
tion unless turned from their course. On a globe set a pointer, representing a 
moving mass of air, at 6o° north latitude, pointing north (globe direction)? 
observe the exact place in the room at which the pointer aims. Rotate the' 
globe slowly through 30 or 40 degrees, keeping the pointer aimed at the same 
place. Now is it pointing to the right or to the left of north ? Bring the globe 
back to the first position and set the pointer east. Observe the place at which 
the pointer aims. Rotate as before, keeping the pointer aimed at the same 



6 









































place. Does the pointer now point to the right or to the left of east? Repeat 
the same process for south and west. Does the rotation of the earth cause 
winds blowing in any direction at latitude 6o° north to deflect to the right or n 
to the left? Repeat the study at latitude io degrees north, at the equator, and ' 
in the Southern Hemisphere. State the facts observed in the demonstration as 
Ferrell’s Law. 

( c ) By means of the rotating table: 

Construction. (Fig. VIII.) Insert a cylindrical wooden axis two or three 
inches in diameter, by square dovetailing, into a round table top three feet across. 
For support join the four legs diagonally by cross-pieces at the top and near 
their centers. Insert the axis through a hole in the top cross-pieces, and lower 
it to rest on the bottom cross-pieces by a pivot projection fitting into a hole. 
The table is to be turned by a pupil pulling a string fastened to and wound 
around the axis. Use graphite to prevent squeaking. Near the edge of the 
table top fasten by hinges a small wooden trough, four or five inches long, 
aimed at the center of the table. 



L 


Let the table represent the Northern Hemisphere, with the edge as the Equator and 

the center as North Pole. On the sta~ 
tionary table a ball, such as used in ball¬ 
bearings, dropped into the slanting 
trough will go across the center of the 
table; when the table is turned anti¬ 
clockwise the ball curves to the right be¬ 
fore reaching the center. If the ball is 
rolled outward from the center of the 
table, from a pasteboard trough held in 
the hand, it curves to the right before 
reaching the edge. 

In a similar way demonstrate that in the 
Southern Hemisphere moving objects are 
deflected to the left, by considering the 
center of the table the South Pole and 
__ turning it clockwise. The amount of de¬ 
flection may be varied by changing the 
speed of rotation or the slope of the 

rTg. viii. hinged trough - 


w 


M 



ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE. 

The object of Exercise XXIIL is to make the pupils realize the meaning of rela¬ 
tive and absolute humidity and to show the principle involved. It may be done 
by the instructor as a class demonstration. The hygometers for use in Exercise 
XXIV. may be furnished the pupils ready made and then part I. may be omitted. 
Very immature pupils will find no difficulty in doing this Exercise if properly 
directed, but the resulting value may not pay for the time consumed. 

Demonstrations to precede Exercise XXV. 

(a) To produce a miniature rain storm. 

Take a quart jar made of clear glass. Fill it one-third full of alcohol. In a 
shallow water bath heat it to the boiling point. Remove it from the fire and 
cover the mouth of the jar loosely with a porcelain evaporating dish or an 
aluminium cup filled with ice water. After a few minutes a fine mist-like pre¬ 
cipitation may be seen going on in the jar. If the experiment be carefully made 
a cloud may be distinctly seen next to the» condenser. 

( b ) To show the formation of fog in air containing dust. 

A large acid bottle is provided with a two-hole rubber stopper. Through one 
hole is a tube leading to a force pump, bicycle pump or atomizer bulb. A little 
water is put into the bottle to furnish moisture. Place the thumb over the 
other hole in the stopper and pump some air into the bottle. Remove the thumb 
and only a slight fog will be seen. Drop a burning match into the bottle to 
furnish “dust” and repeat the operation. A dense fog will form. 

Ask the pupils to make observations and reports on the formation of dew and 


7 





























frost on the grass, on objects lying on the ground, on objects under a tree or 
shed, on wood and stone sidewalks. 

At a convenient time at about this point of the work pupils should be induced 
to visit a Weather Bureau station and inspect the apparatus in order to come to 
some realization of the principles involved in the work. Few people appreciate 
the real importance of observations and warnings. 

The value of Exercise XXV., 2, is in the association of the rainfall areas with 
the topography. It will be necessary to have a quiz on this work to develop it 
as it should be. The instructor should have saved all weather maps and bound 
them together in some manner, consecutively by weeks or months. If this has 
not been done it is always possible to get the officers at the stations to save 
enough maps for each day for a week to supply the class with the consecutively 
arranged series required in Exercise XXVI. As soon as the number of maps 
will allow of a choice only the normal maps should be given to the pupils for 
this work. 

For Exercise XXVII. the weather maps should be cut in two just below the 
map. For convenience the instructor should number the upper and lower por¬ 
tions of each map correspondingly. Then after this exercise is completed the 
lower portions of the maps may be given to the pupils having the respective 
upper portion and a comparison may be made of their work with the official 
report. 

THE EARTH’S SURFACE. 

Exercise XXIX. is really a review of all the causal meteorological conditions, 
showing their result in the continental rainfalls. The topographical causes 
in the different areas should receive especial attention in a quiz preceding the 
Exercise XXX. It may be best to do the work outlined in Exercise XXX. in a 
class recitation by means of the map given. This exercise is the most important 
in the physical geography work as bringing out clearly the specific causal rela¬ 
tion between the earth regions and their inhabitants. 

Exercise XXXI calls for data which the instructor may have to furnish if it is 
not given specifically in the text used. It may be found in Dryer’s Lessons in 
Physical Geography, page 39, in the best form. The object of this experiment 
is to make real the differences existing in the distribution of land and water. 

MINERALS, ROCKS AND SOILS. 

It is easy to overdo this portion of the work. Its intent should be to simply 
familiarize the pupils with enough of the materials common to their environ¬ 
ment to have them realize the relations of origin existing between the classes. 
This will need to be developed in class work to show the rotation of materials 
through the igneous, fragmentary, sedimentary and metamorphic stages. The 
following books will be found helpful for reference: 

Stories of Rocks and Minerals. Fairbanks. Educational Publishing Co. 
Practical Study of Common Minerals. Roy Hopping, publisher, No. 129 Fourth 
Avenue, New York. 

Common Minerals and Rocks. Crosby. D. C. Heath & Co. 

Manual of Mineralogy and Lithology. Dana. Wiley & Sons. 

Stones for Building and Decoration. Merrill. Wiley & Sons. 

Rock, Rock Weathering and Soils. Merrill. Macmillan Company. 

Reports of Division of Soils. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 
Report on Building Stones. Tenth Census. 

The most convenient form for handling the specimens required in this work is 
to fit out small boxes (cigar boxes deodorized by a drop of oil of wintergreen), 
each with a steel knitting needle, a piece of glass, a small vial of hydrochloric 
acid and a short glass dropping rod, a rag and a simple.magnifier. There should 
be a box for each pupil. There should be enough sets of labeled specimens of 
each class to furnish each box so that all pupils will be working on the same 
class of materials at the same time. The unlabeled specimens should not be 
simply the left overs, but should be as carefully selected as the • specimens for 
initial study. Exercises XXXV., 2 and 3, may be done as demonstrations before 
the class. In this event the percolators should be made of large tubing so that 
results will be easily seen by the class. In case the soil is so fine as to go 

8 


through the percolator a piece of cheese cloth or filter paper should be laid over 
the stopper, within the tube. It would be best to furnish the percolators to the 
class ready made. 

Demonstrations to follow Exercise XXXV. 

(a) To show the principles of stratification. 

Fill a large glass jar about two-thirds full of water. Add a quart or two of a 
mixture consisting of pebbles, sand and fine clay. Stir vigorously, then gradu¬ 
ally decrease the speed, thus allowing the sediment to settle. 

( b ) To show rock-folding. 

Procure a rubber band or sheet, several inches wide and a foot and a half or 

two feet long. (A piece of bicycle inner tube will do.) Arrange it so that it 

can be stretched and released slowly and uniformly. This may be done by 
fastening each end between two wooden blocks. These should be long enough to 
project an inch or two on each side, and securing each end of the blocks by a 
string to a hook or nail in the top of the table. Stretch the band, secure it in this 
position, and spread on it a sheet of some soft, plastic material like damp clay or 
putty. Being sure to spread under the first layer a sheet of paper to allow the 
rubber to slip under it easily. Several thin layers of different colored materials, 
such as damp sands and humus, may be put on. The outer edge should be 
trimmed evenly to show the “strata.” Release the band at one end and let it 

shrink slowly to its normal size. The layers on top will fold like mountain 

ranges. .See Annual Report U. S. G. S., Vol. XIII.: the Mechanics of Appa¬ 
lachian Structure. 

(c) To show the formation of stalactites and stalagmites. 

Bore several small holes through the bottom of a tight box, a chalk box will do. 
Mix plaster of Paris with one-third sand. Make a solution and fill the box 
around all edges and for a couple of inches over the bottom. Suspend the box 
about six inches above a dressed board. The whole apparatus should be placed 
over a sink. Keep the box filled with lime water or a solution of alum. If the 
apparatus is properly adjusted the drops of water will evaporate, some before 
and some after falling, forming stalactites and stalagmites. It should be in 
operation for some weeks before it is to be shown in the demonstration. 

TOPOGRAPHIC STUDY. 

The following demonstration may be substituted for Exercise XXXVI. if desired: 
A model of an irregular mountain or island can be easily made of stiff card¬ 
board by sewing the cardboard into the desired shape and tacking it onto a plat¬ 
form of thin boards. The cardboard should be covered by pasting over it a 
layer of black pattern paper, such as can be obtained at any tailor shop. It 
would be well to make one whose contour lines would be like those in the cut of 
Exercise XXXVII. Draw on its surface several contour lines. Hold the model 
so that the pupils can see it from a horizontal viewpoint—the contour lines ap¬ 
pear straight and parallel. Tip it so that the pupils see it vertically—the contour 
lines appear as they would on a map. Ask the pupils such questions as: How 
is a steep slope indicated by contour lines? How a gentle slope? How a uniform 
slope? How a hill or mountain side? How a ravine? Ask the pupils to make 
models at home, as complex as possible, with contour lines drawn; display in class 
This demonstration should be followed by Exercise XXXVII. If a task could 
be set for the pupils to do individually of mapping some small portion of the 
surrounding region much practical good may be derived. 

Exercise XXXVIII. may be given as a demonstration if the laboratory facilities 
will not permit of the individual work. The sand to be used in all modeling 
work should be the Albany moulding sand and may be procured at any foundry. 
The topographic sheets which are presented for laboratory work have been 
selected with care both as to type of land form and ease of interpretation. More 
work is given on some sheets than on others, so the same amount of time can¬ 
not be devoted to each. Some of the studies can be completed in one hour, while 
others will need two or more hours. It is not necessary that all of the maps here 
given should form exercises for laboratory work. A choice may be made by 
the instructor of some which may be handled in a quiz. The laboratory work 
on each sheet should be preceded by a lecture-recitation dealing with the region 


9 


in a broad way and bringing out the geologic structure and the physiographic 
processes which have produced the present topography. Use should be made 
of a large United States map, the map of aggregated sheets of the region, 
and geologic and topographic sections drawn on the blackboard or on the 
black pattern paper mentioned above. This paper forms a very convenient base 
upon which to make drawings and maps which the instructor desires to pre¬ 
serve. Common crayon may be used and fixed in place with an atomized spray 
of shellac dissolved in wood alcohol. 

All of the following map sheets except the Mississippi River Sheet No. 14, 
may be procured from the United States Geological Survey, Department of the 
Interior. Every instructor should send to Charles D. Walcott, Director, for a 
complete list of the publications and maps of the United States Geological Sur¬ 
vey. Nowhere can more valuable material be found than in the monographs, 
folios and bulletins of this department. The Sheet No. 14 of the lower Mis¬ 
sissippi River may be procured from the Mississippi River Commission, 1115 
Fullerton Bldg., St. Louis, Mo. 

The following order of map studies is recommended: 

( /) River Development: 

(a) Ottawa, Ill.—Youthful stage. 

( b ) Charleston, W. Va.—Mature stage. 

( c ) Caldwell, Kan.—Old age stage. 

(2) Mississippi River: 

(a) Savanna, Ill.—Upper Valley. 

( b ) Donaldsonville, La.—Lower Valley. 

(c) Sheet No. 14 of the lower Mississippi River.—Meanders. 

(3) Glacial Phenomena: 

(a) Whitewater, Wis.—Drumlins, Terminal Moraines. 

(b) St. Paul, Minn.—Drift, Moraine, Drainage. 

(4) Sea Shores: 

(a) Atlantic City, N. J.—Barrier Beach. 

( b ) Boothbay, Me.—A Fiord Coast. 

(5) Plains, Plateaus and Mountains: 

( a ) Wicomico, Md.—A Coastal Plain. 

( b ) Kaibab, Ariz.—A Plateau. 

( c) Harrisburg, Pa.—Appalachian Ridges. 

( d ) Anthracite, Colo.—Rocky Mountains. 

(^) Mt. Shasta (special), Cal.—A Volcano. 

Suggestions for mounting topographic sheets. 

The single sheets for laboratory study may be used without mounting, but to 
preserve them for any length of time they should be backed with cloth or card¬ 
board. Cardboard mounting can be done quickly and the sheets will last sev¬ 
eral years. Trim the sheet to a little smaller than 14 by 20 inches and fasten 
to 12 or 16 ply cardboard 14 by 20 inches by putting a little paste on the corners, 
the middle of the edges and the center of the sheet, which will be sufficient 
to hold it. 

The following method is suggested for mounting aggregated sheets: 

Lay the sheets on the floor or table in proper order. Fill in vacant places with 
blank paper. Trim the margin of the bottom and right sides of the upper left- 
hand sheet to within three-fourths inch of the map. The sheet next on the ri°iit 
should be trimmed close to the map at the left side, and at the bottom and right 
sides the same as the first sheet, and so on to the last in that row, which should 
not be trimmed on the right side. The first to the left in the second row should 
be trimmed close on top and right sides and within three-fourths inch on the 
bottom, the next sheet trimmed close on the top and right sides and to within 
three-fourths inch on the other two sides, and so on to the last sheet in that row, 
which should not be trimmed on the right side. Trim the sheets in the suc¬ 
ceeding rows in like manner until the bottom row is reached, which should match 
the row above it and have full margin on the left, bottom and right sides. Paste 
the sheets of each row together, using a warm flatiron to smooth out the wrinkles 
if necessary. Match the contours, streams, etc., as accurately as possible. Then 
paste the rows together. The top and bottom should be reinforced with strips 


10 


of heavy paper and the sides with strips of wide tape pasted over the edges. 
Light strips of wood may be tacked to top and bottom to hold the map up, but 
spring rollers are much better. If a stronger map is desired, paste the sheets 
on cheese-cloth or muslin. Spread the cloth on a table or on the floor, free 
from large cracks, and cover it with a good coat of flour paste. If the map is 
to be wider than the cloth, lap another piece of cloth on the first; the paste will 
hold them together. Trim the topographic sheets and arrange them in order. 
Cover the back of each with paste a few minutes before you lay it in its place 
on the pasted cloth. Rub the sheet down smooth in place with a towel. When 
the whole map is pasted the cloth may be turned over the margin of the paper, 
thus binding it firmly. 

A very convenient arrangement for hanging these topographic maps is by means 
of the Dennison Cloth Suspension Rings, which may be procured at any sta¬ 
tioner’s. These should be stuck on the upper margins of the maps at some 
standard distance apart (two feet or a multiple of two is a convenient distance), 
so that all, maps will hang on the wall hocks in the laboratory which adhere to 
the same standard. 

The following is the list of aggregate sheets, in their order for mounting, which 
will be useful in the study of each respective sheet. A dash shows that no map 
has as yet been published. The names in italics are of the sheets designed for 
special study: 

OTTAWA, ILL. 

Hennepin, La Salle, Ottawa, Marseilles, Morris. 

CHARLESTON, W. VA. 

Kenova, Huntington, Charleston, Kanawha Falls. 

Prestonsburg, Warfield, Oceana, Raleigh. 

CALDWELL, KAN. 

Great Bend, Lyons, Hutchinson, Newton. 

Pratt, Kingman, Cheney, Wichita. 

Medicine Lodge, Anthony, Caldwell, Wellington. 


-, Savanna. 

Goose Lake, Clinton. 
Le Claire,-. 


SAVANNA, ILL. 


DONALDSONV1LLE, LA. 


Donaldsonville, Mt. Airy, Bonne Carre, Spanish Fort. 
Thibordeaux, Lac des Allemands, Hahnville, New Orleans. 


WHITEWATER, WIS. 

Madison, Sun Prairie, Waterloo, Watertown, Oconomowoc, Waukesha, Mil¬ 
waukee. 

Evansville, Stoughton, Koshkonong, Whitewater , Eagle, Muskego, Big View. 
Brodhead, Janesville, Shopiere, Delevan, Geneva, Silver Lake, Racine. 


ST. PAUL, MINN. 

Anaka, W'hite Bear. 

Minneapolis, St. Paul. 

ATLANTIC CITY, N. J. 


Mullica, Little Egg Harbor, Long Beach. 

Great Egg Harbor, Atlantic City, - 

Sea Isle,-,-• 


BOOTIIBAY, MAINE. 


-, -, Gardiner, Wiscasset. 

Gray, Freeport, Bath, Boothbay. 
Portland, Casco Bay, Small Point. 


WICOMICO, MD.-VA. 

Brandywine, Prince Frederick, Sharps Island. 
Wicomico , Leonardtown, Drum Point. 

Montrose. Pinev Point, Pt. Lookout. 


ii 









KAIBAB, ARIZ. 

St. Thomas, Trumbull, Kaibab, Echo Cliffs. 

Camp Mohave, Diamond Creek, Chino, San Francisco Mountains. 

HARRISBURG, PA. 

Sunbury, Shamokin, Catawissa, Mahanoy. 

Millersburg, Lykens, Pine Grove, Pottsville. 

Harrisburg, Hummelstown, Lebanon, Wernersville. 

ANTHRACITE, COLO. 

-, Aspen. 

Anthracite , Crested Butte. 

SHASTA (special), CAL. 

Shasta (Regular), Modoc Lava Bed, Alturas. 

Red Bluff, Lassen Peak, Honey Lake. 

SUGGESTIONS ON THE USE OF THE TOPOGRAPHIC SHEETS. 

The Ottawa Sheet is selected to show the work of young streams on a nearly 
level plain. Beginning at the bluffs along the Illinois River, the streams gradu¬ 
ally work backward, and, under the influence of a rather steep slope, cut narrow, 
deep valleys into the upland. Information bearing on this region may be found 
in Monograph No. 38, U. S. G. S., and Geography of Chicago and Its Environs, 
published by the Geographic Society of Chicago. Rand, McNally & Co. 

The Charleston Sheet shows streams in all the earlier stages of development and 
a thoroughly dissected plateau. Description of this region is found in Physi¬ 
ographic Types No. 1 and in the Charleston Folio No. 72. 

The Caldwell Sheet shows streams well advanced in development and largely 
controlling the topography of the region. The area is well described in Physi¬ 
ographic Types No. 1 and in the State Geological Survey of Kansas. 

The Savanna Sheet is typical of the Upper Mississippi River Valley. This 
region is described in the Sixth Annual Report U. S. G. S. under the Driftless 
Area, in the Eleventh Annual Report U. S. G. S. under Pleistocene History 0/ 
Northwestern Iowa; and in Monograph of U. S. G. S. No. 38. 

The Donaldsonville Sheet shows a swamp flood plain with natural levees border¬ 
ing the river. This is characteristic of the Lower Mississippi River Valley. The 
region is described in Physiographic Types No. 1. 

In connection with the study of the Mississippi River Sheet No. 14, detailed 
maps of the river may be obtained from the Secretary of the Mississippi River 
Commission, St. Louis, Mo., especially those of the Upper and the Lower 
Valleys, which can be obtained free of cost for school use. The sheets of each 
should be pasted together and mounted. Additional information on the 
Physiography and Geology of the river may be found in Russell, Dana, Le 
Conte, Scott, Brigham, Mill’s International Geography and any standard geology. 
The Whitewater and St. Paul Sheets show glacial phenomena, such as kettle 
terminal moraines, ground moraines, drumlins and post-glacial drainage. In¬ 
formation on these regions may be found in the Geological Surveys of Wis¬ 
consin and Minnesota; Third and Seventh Annual Reports of U. S. G. S.; 
Monograph U. S. G. S. No. 25; Wright’s Ice Age of North America; American 
Geologist, Vols. X. and XV. Geography Around Devil’s Lake: and Physiography 
of Southern Wisconsin. The last two are published by the Wisconsin Geological 
Survey, Madison Wis. In connection with the study of this sheet (Exercise 
XLV) a special study upon the Falls of St. Anthony may be made. One student 
can look up the history of the Falls as a special topic. He should find out where 
the Falls began, why it began and that it is now stationary, being prevented 
by artificial means from cutting back further. 

The Atlantic City Sheet shows a typical eastern United States coast south of 
New York. In addition to Physiographic Types No. 1, see the Sixth and 
Thirteenth Annual Reports U. S. G. S. and State Survey. Get United States 
Coast Survey Chart No. 122 (50 cents). From it copy on the sheets given 
the pupils the depths in Great Bay and along one or two lines running east from 


12 



the coast. Be particular to give all the depths in and near the channel leading 
to Great Bay and along the profile line east from Leed’s Point. 

The Boothbay Sheet shows a typical portion of the rugged New England coast. 
In addition to Physiographic Types No. i, see Geology of Mt. Desert in Eighth 
Annual Report U. S. G. S., and National Geographic Monographs, published by 
American Book Company. Get United States Coast Chart No. 314 (25 cents). 
From it copy on the sheets given the pupils the depth of water in several bays. 
Draw a line, one-half inch from the bottom of the map, from Damiscove Island 
to the mainland and write the depths along it. 

The Wicomico Sheet represents a typical portion of the geologically recent 
coastal plain where the streams are working in soil formations. The Nomini 
Folio No. 23 contains considerable information about this region, and the 
Seventh Annual Report U. S. G. S. also contains a paper on the region around 
the head of Chesapeake Bay. 

The Kaibab Sheet represents one of the deepest parts of the Grand Canyon. 
Much has been written about the Canyon. See Monograph of the U. S. G. S. 
No. 2; Second Annual Report of the U. S. G. S.; Exploration of the Colorado 
River, by Major J. W. Powell; In and Around the Grand Canyon, by G. W. 
James, published by Little, Brown & Co., Boston. (At the end of this last pub¬ 
lication is a bibliography of the Grand Canyon region.) 

The Harrisburg Sheet is typical of the Northern Appalachians. See Physi¬ 
ographic Types No. 2, National Geographic Monographs, American Book Co.; 
and Thirteenth Annual Report of U. S. G. S. 

The Anthracite Sheet represents a region in the high Rocky Mountains. The 
Anthracite-Crested Butte Folio No. 9 gives a good description of this region. 
(The folio is out of stock at present, but can be found in most public libraries.) 
The Shasta (special) Sheet represents a young volcano. It is described in 
Physiographic Types No. 1. 

In connection with the study of each topographic sheet the exercise requires the 
pupil to show some reproduction of the characteristics of the sheet, either by 
profile drawing or by sand modeling. It is hardly necessary to do each of these 
and instructors will need to instruct the class as to their choice. 

The instructor may find it desirable to have pupils make longitudinal profiles 
of a few rivers. If Gannett’s pamphlet on Profiles of Rivers in the United States 
is not available, the data given below may be found convenient. Any scale may 
be used, but probably the most convenient one is horizontal scale one cm. equals 
100 miles, and vertical scale one cm. equals 1,000 feet. Where rivers have very 
steep slopes the vertical scale may be reduced to one cm. equals 2,000 feet. The 
first scale gives a vertical exaggeration of 528 and the second an exaggeration 
of 264. 

I. MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



Distance 

Alt. Above 

Stations. 

From Mouth. 

Sea Level. 

Mouth 

0 miles 

0 feet. 

Ohio River 

1097 miles 

270 feet. 

Minn. River 

1943 miles 

688 feet. 

Minneapolis 

1952 miles 

794 feet. 

Lake Itasca 

2296 miles 

II. MISSOURI RIVER. 

1462 feet. 

Mouth 

0 miles 

395 ^et. 

Ft. Benton 

2074 miles 

2565 feet. 

Great Falls 

2111 miles 

3295 feet. 

Three Forks 

2340 miles 

4000 feet. 

III. 

OHIO—ALLEGHENY RIVER. 


Mouth 

0 miles 

274 feet. 

Pittsburg 

963 miles 

702 feet. 

Red Bank River 

1027 miles 

821 feet. 

Source 

1300 miles 

1700 feet. 


13 


IV. DELAWARE RIVER. 



Mouth 

0 miles 

0 

feet. 

Belvidere 

68 miles 

235 

feet. 

Water Gap 

81 miles 

3 01 

feet. 

Port Jervis 

127 miles 

450 

feet. 

Deposit 

212 miles 

984 

feet. 

Source 

280 miles 

1886 

feet. 

V. HUDSON RIVER. 



Mouth 

0 miles 

0 

feet. 

Troy 

150 miles 

5 

feet. 

Ft. Edward R. R. Bridge 

190 miles 

118 

feet. 

Secondaga River 

216 miles 

536 

feet. 

Schroon River 

228 miles. 

594 

feet. 

North Creek 

248 miles 

981 

feet. 

Tear of Clouds 

300 miles 

4322 

feet. 

VI. COLORADO- 

-GREEN RIVER. 



Mouth 

0 miles 

0 

feet. 

Grand Wash. 

600 miles 

1000 

feet. 

Naoaho Creek 

905 miles 

3220 

feet. 


1435 miles 

4750 

feet. 

Big Sandy River 

1652 miles 

6240 

feet. 

Source 

1800 miles 

7808 

feet. 

VII. COLUMBIA- 

-SNAKE RIVER. 



Mouth 

0 miles 

0 

feet. 

Snake River 

312 miles 

145 

feet. 

W eiser 

618 miles 

2123 

feet. 

Glenn’s Ferry 

792 miles 

2500 

feet. 

914 miles 

4190 

feet. 

Salt River 

mo miles 

5363 

feet. 

Shoshone Lake 

1251 miles 

7746 

feet. 

VIII. ARKANSAS RIVER. 



Mouth 

0 miles 

11 7 

feet. 

Wichita 

832 miles 

1222 

feet. 

Pueblo 

1334 miles 

4700 

feet. 

So. Ark. River 

1428 miles 

6500 

feet. 

Tennessee Pass 

1497 miles 

10400 

feet. 

IX. PLATTE AND SO. PLATTE RIVERS. 


Mouth 

0 miles 

940 

feet. 

Platte Canyon 

623 miles 

5492 

feet. 

Source 

742 miles 

10000 

feet. 


In connection with each of these characteristic regions some portion of the im¬ 
mediate locality which presents some of the characteristics under discussion, 
should be visited by the class. An outline for field study should be prepared by 
the instructor for the trip. The work would be of special value in connection 
with the exercises on river development, glacial topography and on shore lines. 
It would be most instructive if the pupils could make their own collections for 
pebbles for study in Exercise XLVI. 


14 




J 


























A 

Laboratory Manual 

in 

Physical Geography 

By 

Frank W. Darling 

Head, of the Department of Geography and Vice-Principal 
of the Chicago Normal School 



Atkinson, Mentzer & Grover 

Chicago Publishers Boston 





















(Sr 6 Z 3 
• SUl i 


LIBRARY ol CONGRFSS 
Two Comet rtcc<a»eo 

JUN 9 »y05 

y* Coi>«ri K m tiiirjr 

J^rU2. 9 /f * S' 

JtLh SS Ct AAc. No; 

// 8 % S & 

CORY b. 

L—. 


Copyright, 1903, 

By KENNETH C. FITCH. 

Copyright , 1903, 

By ATKINSON, MENTZER & GROVER. 









THE PREFACE. 


T HE best friends of Physical Geography have been fearful of the introduc¬ 
tion of laboratory work as a prominent part of the study of the science. 
And well they might be judging from some tendencies shown by the 
laboratory work in other sciences. A summarizing of the most objectionable 
inconsistencies which are found to be invading the laboratory work in Physical 
Geography may be helpful: 

I -—Laboratory work should not be expected to take the place of real experi¬ 
ences out of doors, but to stimulate such observation and to supplement it. Any 
Physical Geography laboratory manual can do little more than suggest oppor¬ 
tunities for excursions and individual out-of-door work, on account of the vary¬ 
ing local conditions. 

2 *—Mere copying of maps, charts, diagrams, etc., is of little or no value. Such 
work must have in it something to stimulate the self-activity of the pupil, so 
that his work will give him a better realization of the principles involved. The 
final result may not show as perfect a map as if the work had been copied, but 
the aim of the teacher should be to teach the child rather than to secure an accu¬ 
rate map. On the other hand, the author believes that if the pupil is led to 
tabulate observed or collected data in diagrammatic form it will tend to bring 
the pupil to a better realization of the facts, and when followed up by intelli¬ 
gent questions that it will lead to a further understanding of the effects and 
relations. 

3.—Another and probably the most dangerous tendency of Physical Ge¬ 
ography laboratory work, at the present time, is the disposition to take up the 
time and attention with all kinds of’ pyrotechnics and monstrosities, to furnish 
a scientific wonderland instead of bringing the pupils to a comprehension of the 
simple underlying principles, the application of which has to do with relations 
existing between the earth and man. We continually presume upon the child’s 
experience by assuming that he is familiar with these principles whose effects 
immediately surround him, when in fact, anything more than the simple observa¬ 
tion of the fact itself has escaped them. 

The author has attempted to avoid these errors by continually keeping in 
mind that the aim and method of Geography study shoidd be to familiarise the 
pupil with those natural causes and effects which the individual may observe in 
his immediate surroundings, to seek out the principle underlying the observed 
phenomena, and then to see the application of this principle as an interpreter of 
the more universal relations existing between earth and man. 

At the present time it is impossible to approach any standard series of 
exercises. In this Manual all parts of the subject are treated fully and probably 
twice as many exercises are given as can be attempted in one year’s work with 
any first year High School class. It is intended that each instructor shall select 
the exercises which best fit the conditions in which his classes are placed. Enough 
instructive and simple exercises may be selected from each division of the subject 
to occupy a class which is poorly prepared and is working under the disadvantage 
of no equipment. 

The credit for this Manual belongs to no one individual, but in the main 
to Ralph E. Blount, Jane Perry Cook, Kenneth C. Fitch and Calvin L. Walton, 
Instructors of Physical Geography in Chicago High Schools. In 1903 these 
experienced teachers, together with the author of this edition, prepared A 
Laboratory Manual for Physical Geography for use in the Chicago High 
Schools. The suggestions and criticisms of instructors who used the Manual 
for a year in Chicago and other cities have been made use of in preparing this 
edition of the Manual, which is in fact a revised and supplemented edition of 
the work into which the above named individuals put so much time and experi- 

enCC Acknowledgment should also be made to W. H. Snyder, Head of the De¬ 
partment of Geography in Worcester, Mass., Academy, and to Miss Mary 
McNair, Instructor in Physical Geography in the Hinsdale, Ill., High School, 
for valuable suggestions on the manuscript and proof. The relief maps accom¬ 
panying the manual were made by Mr. G. Thorne-Thomsen, of the School of 
Education, University of Chicago, by the chalk modeling, process, and their 
correctness and general quality will almost mark a new era in such productions. 

„ , Frank Woolson Darling. 

Chicago, February, 1905. 



























































Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mentser & Grover. 


Material. 


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Exercise I. 

THE CONSTRUCTION AND MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES. 

Pencil, compasses, foot-rule, quadrant instrument. 

(7) To construct an angle. 

Draw two circles having the same center, one six inches in diameter, the other 
four inches in diameter. How many degrees in each circumference? What 
numbers will evenly divide 360? Why is 360 a convenient number to designate 
the number of degrees in a circumference? Draw two diameters at right angles 
to each other, dividing the circles into four equal parts or quadrants. How 
many degrees in a quadrant? How many degrees in a right angle? Mark 
off from the end of one diameter an arc of 30 degrees and draw its angle at 
the center. Mark off, in this same quadrant and also in another quadrant, arcs 
of 23^4 degrees and draw their angles. 

(2) To measure angular altitude. 

With a quadrant instrument measure the angular distance between a horizontal 
line and a line from your eye to the corner of the ceiling. This angle measures 
the altitude of the ceiling corner above your eye. Draw this angle of altitude 
and write in it the number of degrees it represents. Repeat with several objects 
in the room and with a tower or other high object outside. 

(3) To find the altitude *of the sun. 

With the quadrant instrument, find the altitude of the sun. Draw the angle of 
altitude and indicate the number of degrees. 




Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mcntzer & Grover. 


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Exercise II. 

ROTATION AND ITS EFFECTS. 

A six-inch globe, a hoop to fit about the globe, outline map of the United States, 
outline map of the world. 

(/) To determine the points and circles on the globe caused by rotation. 

Place the globe on the desk so that the axis is vertical. Rotate the globe slowly. 
What two points have the least movement ? At what place on the globe does a 
point have the greatest speed? What line is determined by the rotation of this 
fastest moving point ? How many degrees are there between the slowest and the 
fastest moving points? How will the circles drawn by any moving points on 
the globe lie in relation to the equator? Why are these circles called “parallels 
of latitude”? How many parallels might be drawn? 

(2) To determine the amount of the earth’s surface illuminated at one time. 
Place the globe in a strong light. How much of the globe can be illuminated 
at one time? How much of the globe can you see at one time when the equator 
is on a parallel with the eye and some distance from it? Place a 'hoop 
about the globe to separate the part illuminated or visible from that 
part which is dark or invisible. This circle is called the circle of illumination. 
Which way must the earth rotate to make the sun rise in the east and set in the 
west, from right to left or from left to right? 

(5) To determine the location of hour circles and meridians. 

Upon how many degrees of the equator can the sun shine vertically in one day? 
In one hour? In four minutes? Through how many degrees does a point in 
latitude 30° north rotate in one day? In one hour? In four minutes? 

Rotate the globe under the hoop, which marks the circle of illumination, to illus¬ 
trate this movement of the illumination for one hour of rotation. How many 
degrees apart should lines be drawn, from pole to pole, to mark off the hours 
on the earth’s surface? These may be called hour circles and are meridians. 
How many hour circles may there be? How many meridians may there be? 

PROBLEMS IN LONGITUDE AND TIME. 

a If the sun is just rising at 45 0 East longitude what will be the time before or 
after sunrise at 60 0 East longitude? What will be the time at io° West longi¬ 
tude? 

b If a telegram were sent from London, o° longitude, at 10 P. M., to Chicago, 
87 0 37' West longitude, at what time would it be received, allowing 30 minutes 
for transmission? 

c When it is noon at Chicago it is 9:48 a. m. at San Francisco. What is the 
longitude of the latter? 

(4) To locate the standard time belts in the United States. 

On the outline map of the United States locate the meridians of 75 0 , 90°, 105°, 
and 120 0 W. Long. Why should these be chosen as the central meridians for 
the standard time belts ? By referring to a standard time map, sketch in and 
name the four standard time belts. Explain the convenience of standard time. 





PROBLEMS INVOLVING STANDARD TIME AND THE DATE LINE. 

a What is the exact longitude of the place in which you live? To which of the 
central meridians of standard time are you nearest? How much does your 
standard time differ from your local time and why? 

b If you should start at noon to-morrow and travel west around the earth at 
the same rate at which the earth rotates, what time and date would you count 
it when you had gone one-fourth the distance around? One-half the distance 
around? Three-fourths the distance around? The whole distance around? 
How would your date differ from those who had remained at home and how 
would you change your date to correct it? 

c If you should start from home to-morrow at noon and travel east at the 
same rate at which the earth rotates, what time and date would you count it 
when you had gone 90° E. ? 180° E. ? 270 0 E. ? 360° E.? 
d When a person travels west how much and how often does he have to change 
his watch ? How would he have to change his date to make up for this change of 
his watch if he went around the earth? How would he make these changes if 
he went east? Where would he change his date? 

e On an outline map of the world draw the date line with its irregularities 
as shown on a map giving the date line. On the west side of the line write 
“Monday.” Write the proper day on the east side of the line to correspond 
with the west side. 


Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mentzer & Grover. 


Material. 


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Exercise III. 

A STUDY OF LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 

Pencil, compasses, ruler, globe. 

(1) To represent by a map an eastern or western hemisphere, with latitude and 
longitude lines. 

Draw a circle six inches in diameter. Mark dots directly above and below the 
center to represent the North and South poles respectively. Draw a prime merid¬ 
ian intersecting these three points. Draw a straight line, through the center, 
at right angles to the meridian to represent the equator. Divide each quadrant 
arc into three equal parts, as accurately as you can estimate. Divide the prime 
meridian into six equal parts. By connecting the points in the circumference 
with these points in the prime meridian, draw the curved lines which represent 
the parallel circles. Indicate tropical and polar circles, in their proper places, 
by means of dotted iines. Divide the equator into twelve equal parts; through 
these points draw meridians from pole to pole. Mark in degrees all latitude and 
longitude circles you have drawn. Name the tropical and polar circles. 

(2) To represent by a map the northern hemisphere, with latitude and longi¬ 
tude lines. 

Draw a circle six inches in diameter. From the center as the North pole draw 
24 equidistant radii for meridians. (Suggestion: Divide the circumference into 
six equal parts by using the compasses, whose points are the radius distance 
apart. Bisect these arcs; then bisect again.) Draw the parallels of 30° and 6o° 
by dividing the radii into three equal parts by concentric circles. Represent the 
Arctic circle and the Tropic of Cancer by means of dotted lines. Name all the 
lines as in the preceding drawing. 

(S) Compare the two drawings made in this exercise with a globe placed in the 
positions represented. Notice in what particulars the drawings fail to repre¬ 
sent perfectly the lines as they appear on the spherical surface. 




Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mentser & Grover, 


Material. 


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Exercise IV. 

OBSERVATION OF LATITUDE. 

Globe, horizon circle, quadrant instrument. 

(1) To determine why the altitude of the North Star (Polaris) indicates the 
latitude of places in the northern hemisphere. 

Place the horizon circle so that the crossing of the wires will be at the equator. 
The edge of the circle, extended, indicates the horizon line (where the earth 
and sky appear to meet) for an individual located on the equator, where the 
wires cross. How much of the heavens can be seen at one time from any one 
place on the earth? Where would the star which is above the north pole 
appear to be to a person located on the equator? As the person goes north 
one degree from the equator how does the North Star change its position with 
the horizon? Place the crossing of the wires at io° N. How high above the 
horizon will the North Star appear to one at io° N.? Make a conclusion as 
to how to find the latitude of a place in the Northern Hemisphere by observing 
the North Star. 

(2) To determine the latitude of your locality by observation of the North 
Star. 

On a clear night, find the horizon over a body of water or other plane, or go 
high enough to look off and see a regular horizon line. Find the North Star. 
With the quadrant instrument find the altitude of the star. Take the observation 
several times and average the results. Compare the observed altitude with the 
latitude given on a map for your location. 




Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mentzer & Grover. 


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Exercise V. 

REVOLUTION AND INCLINATION OF THE AXIS AND THEIR 

EFFECTS. 

Globe, a hoop of tin or other substance made to fit closely about the globe, a 
horizon disc, three outline maps of the Western Hemisphere. 

(7) To determine where the vertical rays of the sun fall at different seasons 
and the effects: length of day and night, tropical and polar circles. 

Place some object on the center of your desk to represent the sun. Incline 
the axis of the globe 23J4 0 from the vertical. Place the globe a little distance 
from the sun so that the axis points towards the north. Carry the globe about 
the sun, in anticlockwise direction, to represent the annual movement of the 
earth about the sun. Place the globe in such a position that the vertical rays 
of the sun would shine vertically upon the equator. Call the season spring. Place 
the hoop about the globe to show what half of the earth is illuminated. How 
does the circle of illumination divide the equator? Rotate the globe. How 
many hours of sunlight would any place on the equator have on this twenty- 
first day of March? Then what is the relative length of day and night at the 
equator in the spring? What is the relative length of day and night for any 
place on the parallel of 45 0 N.? What is the relative length of day and night 
all over the earth on March 21st? Why is it called the Spring Equinox? Shade 
an outline map of the Western Hemisphere to show what part of it is light 
and what part is dark when it is noon at 20° W. Long. March 21st. 

Carry the globe around in its orbit 90°, keeping the axis pointing to the north, 
to a point where the north pole is inclined toward the sun. Place the hoop to 
represent the circle of illumination on this day of June 21st. Where will the 
vertical rays of the sun fall on this day? Rotate the globe and note what line 
on the earth is traced by the vertical rays of the sun. What then is the mean¬ 
ing of the Tropic of Cancer? How far beyond the north pole does the sun 
shine on June 21st? Rotate the globe and note what part of the earth would not be 
in the sunlight on June 21st. What circle marks off this region? What is 
the condition of day and night within the Antarctic circle on June 21st? How 
much of the equator is illuminated at one time on June 21st? What is the 
relative length of day and night at the equator on June 21st? What is the 
relative length of day and night at 60 0 N. on June 21st? By counting the 
number of hour circles in the illuminated area on the 60th parallel state definitely 
the length of the day and of the night on June 21st. In the same way determine the 
length of day and night at your own latitude on June 21st. What is the rela¬ 
tive length of day and night in the Northern Hemisphere on June 21st? What 
is the relative length of day and night in the Southern Hemisphere on June 
21st? What is the meaning of Summer Solstice? Shade an outline map of the 
Western Hemisphere to show what part of it is light and what part is dark 
when it is noon at 20° W. Long, at the Summer Solstice. 

Move the globe around 90° farther in its orbit, until the vertical rays of the 
sun fall on the equator. What date is it? What is the period called? What is 
the relative length of day and night all over the earth on this date? 

Move the globe around 90° further in its orbit, until the north pole points 
away from the sun. At what latitude does the sun shine vertically at this 
Winter Solstice? What circle is determined by the vertical rays of the sun at 
this date? What is the relative length of day and night at the equator? What 
is the relative length of day and night in the Northern Hemisphere? In the 
Southern? Determine the exact length of day and night at your locality on 
December 21st. Shade an outline map of the Western Hemisphere to show 
what part of it is light and what part is dark when it is noon at 20° W. Long, 
on December 21st. 




Make a drawing of the earth in its revolution about the sun showing the posi¬ 
tion of the earth’s axis, and the halves of the earth illuminated at the four dates: 
March 21st, June 21st, September 21st, and December 21st. 

(2) To determine the noon altitude of the sun at any place. 

What is the altitude of the sun at the equator on March 21st? Place the globe 
in the proper position to represent the relative position of the earth and sun on 
the spring equinox. Place the horizon disc so that the wires cross on the 
equator. The sun at this date is vertical where? Count the number of degrees 
between the place where the rays fall vertically and the horizon of that place to 
determine the altitude of the sun at noon at that place. Make a diagram show¬ 
ing the angle made at the center of the earth, between the vertical rays and 
the horizon of the place. 

PROBLEMS ON THE SUN’S ALTITUDE. 

a Determine the noon altitude of the sun on March 21st, on June 21st, on 
September 21st, and on December 21st at each of the following places and 
express the answer by a diagram showing the angle made at the center of 
the earth, between the vertical rays and the horizon of that place: 

Chicago, 42 0 N. Lat. 

New Orleans, 30° N. Lat. 

Pretoria, 26° S. Lat. 

Your own locality. 

b How far is your own locality from the vertical rays of the sun on June 
21st? How far is the equator from the vertical rays of the sun on the same 
date ? 

c What are the latitudes of those places where the sun is 8o° above the horizon 
on December 21st? 

c What is the altitude of the sun at midnight in latitude 78° N. on June 21st? 
d What is the latitude of that place where the sun is 3 0 above the horizon 
at midnight on December 21st? 

e What is the lowest latitude where any day is more than 24 hours long? 


Copyright, 1905 , by Atkinson, Mentzer & Grover. 


Material. 


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Exercise VI. 

MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE. 

GLOBE STUDY. 

Globe, pencil compasses. 

( 1 ) To determine approximately the number of miles in a degree on any par¬ 
allel. If there are 360° in the equator and the earth is approximately 25,000 
miles in circumference, what is the length, in miles, of one degree at the equator ? 
What is the length of one degree on any meridian? What is the length of one 
degree at the polar point? What is the length of one degree on the parallel of 
45 ° ? 

Determine the number of degrees between any two meridians on your globe. 
Spread your pencil compasses, so as to mark the exact distance between the 
two meridians on the 45th parallel. Lay off this same distance on the equator 
and find the number of equatorial degrees contained in the distance. Multiply 
the number of equatorial degrees so found by the number of miles in one equa¬ 
torial degree. This will give you what distance? Divide the product by the 
number of degrees between the meridians at the 45th parallel. The result is 
what? Find how many miles per hour the earth rotates at the parallel of 45 0 . 
Determine and fill out the following table: 


/ 


Number of Miles in One 
Degree. 


Latitude. 


Number of Miles Earth Rotates 
in an Hour. 


O 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 













Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mentser & Grover. 


Material. 


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Exercise VII. 

OBSERVATIONS OF THE HEAVENS. 

Quadrant instrument, cross-ruled paper. 

THE SUN. 

(1) To determine the sun’s altitude at different times of a day. On some 
one day, take the altitude of the sun just before school, again at noon (sun 
time), and again after school. Make a record of your observations and state 
the time and date each was taken. 

(2) To determine the changes of position in the heavens and the time of 
rising and setting of the sun during the year. On the first clear day of each 
week, during the school year, observe the time and the direction of the rising 
sun and of the setting sun and the altitude of the sun at about noon. Record 
your observations in the following table. (If you are unable to make the observ¬ 
ations regularly, get the data from an almanac to fill up the vacant places, but 
draw a small circle around the figures so obtained.) : 


DATE 

RISING 

SETTING 

Noon Altitude 

Time 

Direction 

Time 

Direction 

s 


























(j) To determine the curve of the sun’s annual variation in altitude. 

On the chart below make a dot, each week, in the proper place to show the noon 
altitude of the sun which you observed and recorded in the preceding table. 
Connect the dots by a line, which you may call the curve of the sun’s annual 
variation in altitude. After you have completed a month’s observations, write 
the name of the month above the numbers representing the weeks: 



(4) To draw sunrise and sunset curves. 

On a sheet of cross-ruled paper let the vertical lines one centimeter apart repre¬ 
sent the first days of the months. Date each line from January 1st to January 
1st, inclusive. The centimeter spaces will represent the months. Let the hori¬ 
zontal centimeter lines represent the hours of the day. Number the top one 12 
midnight, the next one below 1 a. m., and so on down. Draw a heavy line 
across the page on the noon line. 

Take from an almanac the times of sunrise and sunset, at your latitude, on the 
first of each month. Indicate these times by dots on your diagram in the proper 
places. The distance between the dots for a given day will represent the length 
of the day. Draw the sunrise and sunset curves by connecting the dots. 

When is the day longest? When is the night longest? When are the day and 
night of equal length ? How does the total time of daylight for the year compare 
with the total time of darkness? Why? 















































































THE MOON. 


(5) To observe and record the phases of the moon. 

During a month, designated by the teacher, make on drawing paper a series of 
drawings of the moon, showing its apparent shape on each Monday and each 
Thursday during the month. State the age of the moon at each drawing. 

(6) To observe and record the changes of position which the moon under¬ 
goes during the month. 

Observe the time and direction of the rising and of the setting of the moon 
on the days on which you make the drawings and record them in the following 
table. If you are unable to make all of the observations, supply the lacking 
data from an almanac, but draw a small circle around the figures so obtained: 



Where is the sun when you observe the bright, new moon in the west? Make a 
drawing showing the relative positions of the sun, earth and moon at the time of 
new moon. 

Where is the sun when you observe the full moon in the east ? Make a drawing 
showing the relative positions of the sun, earth and moon at the time of full 
moon. 

Explain why the “horns” of the moon always point away from the sun. 

WEATHER OBSERVATIONS. 

(7) To determine the cause and effect relations of weather changes and condi¬ 
tions. 

Fill out one of the following charts each month, from observations taken approx¬ 
imately the same time each day: 
















DATE 

>• 

< 

O 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 


Mon. 

















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DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 


Mon. 

















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DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST. DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 


Mon. 

















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DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 

i 


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DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 

«e 


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• 


































































































DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 

♦ 


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DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER, 


Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 























































































DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 


Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 










# 







Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 










* 







Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg, Wk. 

















Mcn. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 












— 





Wed. 

















Thur. 






• 











Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 































































































DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 

t 


Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 











• 






Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 









_ 








Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 














- 






























































































DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER j 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY j 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 


Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg, Wk. 






• 











Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 
















* 

Avg. Wk. 


















































































DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR j 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 


Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg, Wk. 








• 









Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

















Mon. 

















Tues. 

















Wed. 

















Thur. 

















Fri. 

















Avg. Wk. 

































































































Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mentzer < 5 * Grover. 


Material. 


Name — 
Address- 


Exercise VIII. 

LIGHT. 

Sticks of colored crayon; violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red and 
white, a piece of glass, a sheet of white drawing paper, a metal cup. 

(j) To determine the composition of different colors. 

On a piece of rough, white paper fill in solid a small square of about two inches 
with the red crayon. Cover half of this square with yellow crayon and rub it 
well to mix it with the red underneath. What is the resulting color? What 
relation does the newly produced color bear to the others in the spectrum posi¬ 
tion? Repeat the exercise, making other squares by using the following pairs 
of colors: violet and blue, blue and yellow, green and orange. 

(2) To determine the composition of shades. 

Make other color squares, using the crayon with colors which stand next to each 
other in the spectrum. What is produced? In the same way mix one of the 
colors with white. What effect is produced? 

(j) To observe the effect of refraction. 

Put a coin in the bottom of a metal dish so that it is just beyond the range of 
vision as you look over the edge of the dish to the bottom of the opposite side. 
Fill the dish with water, pouring slowly to avoid disturbing the position of the 
coin. What is the effect of the water on the apparent position of the coin? 
Make a drawing which will show the course the light must have taken through 
the water and through the atmosphere to produce the effect. 

EXERCISES FOR OUT-OF-DOORS OBSERVATION. 

(4) To observe some of the natural phenomena of light. 
a Hold a piece of glass closely over an oil flame or a candle flame until the 
glass is heavily coated with soot. Look through the glass at the sun. What 
color does the sun appear to be? Explain what has become of the other colors. 
b Observe the full moon when near the rising or setting points when it looks 
abnormally large and red. Note what the atmospheric conditions are at the 
time. This appearance of the moon is often known as a “bloody moon” and 
is considered a sign of drought. Is there any reason for so considering it? 
Explain. 

c Observe the sunset or sunrise colors and make a note of the arrangement 
of the colors. Which side of the spectrum is below? Give a reason for this. 
d Just after the sun has set notice the “twilight arch” in the east. Note the 
clear blue space below the arch. This is the shadow of the earth. Account for it. 
e Observe rainbows, coronas, “sun-dogs,” etc., and make a note of the conditions 
which prevail when each is observed, the order of arrangement of the colors and 
give a reason for the light effect. 




Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mentzer & Grover. 


Material. 


Name — 
Address- 


Exercise IX. 

MAGNETISM. 

Two sewing needles, a small bar magnet with north and south ends marked, 
a tumbler of water, a piece of pith or cork, an outline map of North America, 
an isogonic map of the United States. 

( 1) To determine the magnetic properties of a magnet. 

Place a sewing needle on a sheet of paper and toward it move, slowly, one end 
of a small bar magnet, noticing the distance at which attraction is first observed. 
Do the same with the other end of the magnet. Do the ends attract the needle 
equally? Rub the needle over the magnet a number of times in the same 
direction until the needle will itself attract another needle. Try each end of the 
magnet again on the point of the magnetized needle. Note the resulting attrac¬ 
tion and repulsion. 

(2) To manufacture a simple compass. 

Cut a piece of pith or cork into a small disc about the size of a dime and a 
little thicker. Run the magnetized needle through the broad way of the disc 
until it is evenly balanced in the center of the disc. Place the needle and disc 
very carefully upon the quiet surface of a tumbler of water so that it floats. 
Let the needle come to rest away from the edge of the tumbler. - Care should 
be taken to remove the bar magnet some distance from the needle. What direc¬ 
tion does the needle assume? Determine the north and south line. 

Bring the north end of the bar magnet near the north pointing end of your 
compass needle. What is the result? Bring the north end of the magnet to the 
south pointing end of the needle. What is the result? Bring the south end 
of the magnet to the north end of the needle. What is the result? Bring the 
south end of the magnet to the south end of the needle. What conclusion can 
you make concerning the attraction and repulsion of magnets? 

(3) To determine the declination of the compass. 

By referring to an isogonic map of the United States determine how far from 
the direct north polar point the magnetic needle points in your locality. On 
an outline map of North America locate the North Magnetic Pole. At your 
own locality mark an arrow showing the direction the magnetic needle points. 
Do the same for New York, Columbia, S, C., San Francisco and Portland, Ore. 






Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mentser & Grover. 


Material. 


Name — 
Address- 


Exercise X. 

HEAT. 

Snow or ice, a tin can or a deep dish, a Fahrenheit thermometer, a test tube, a 
small flask, a rubber stopper with two holes, a stand, a sixteen-inch glass tube, 
a glass stopper-plug. 

( 1 ) To determine the freezing point of water. 

Record the temperature of the water in a vessel of melting snow or ice. 

Mix some cracked ice or snow with one-third its volume of salt and pack the 
mixture in a can or deep dish. Fill a test tube one-half full of ordinary water 
and bury it to an inch above the water level in this mixture. Put a thermometer 
in the water of the test tube and note the temperature at which ice forms. Repeat 
the experiment with water containing about three per cent of salt, the amount 
found in sea water. What is the result? What becomes of the heat of the 
water in the test tube? What is the freezing point of water? 

(2) To determine the boiling point of water. 

Fill a flask one-third full of water. Place the thermometer through one hole 
of the rubber stopper so the bulb of the thermometer will rest just above the 
surface of the water when the stopper is inserted in the flask. Arrange the 
flask over the flame and note the reading of the thermometer when the water 
boils. Remove the stopper and push the thermometer through so that the bulb 
will be in the water. Record the temperature of the water when boiling. Bring 
the flame closer and heat as intensely as possible. How high will the ther¬ 
mometer go? Cover the hole in the stopper just for an instant, not longer. 
What effect does this have on the temperature? What conclusion can you make 
concerning the effect of pressure on the boiling point of water? 

(3) To determine the expansive effect of heat on a liquid. 

Fill the flask full of water. Leave the thermometer in one hole of the stopper 
and put a piece of glass tubing through the other hole so that it will stand 
at least a foot above the stopper. Insert the stopper and allow the water to 
stand an inch or so high in the tube. Mark the water line with a piece of 
gummed paper. Heat the flask very slowly and note the distance the water rises 
in the tube for each degree of temperature read. 

(4) To determine the expansive effect of heat on a gas. 

Remove the thermometer from the stopper and fill the hole with a glass plug. 
Insert the glass tube through the other hole. Empty the flask and insert the 
stopper with its glass tube. Turn the flask so that the end of the tube is under 
water. Rub the flask vigorously with the hands. What is the effect? Warm 
the flask very slightly by bringing the flame near it. What is the effect? Allow 
the flask to cool slowly. What does this experiment prove concerning the effect 
of heat on a gas? Which will be the heavier, a cubic foot of cold air or a cubic 
foot of warm air? 




Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mentzer & Grover. 


Name — 
Address- 


Exercise XI. 

TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE. 

Material. Helior, several sheets of cross-section paper, Fahrenheit thermometer. 

(1) To determine the relative amount of heat received from the sun at its 
different altitudes. 

Place a piece of cross-section paper on the base board of the helior. Raise the 
tube of the helior until it is at an angle of 90° with the base. Look through the 
tube and see how much of the paper may be seen. This is the amount of surface 
the sunlight would cover if the sun were immediately over-head, with rays 
vertical. Outline this space on the paper. Adjust the helior so its base is hori¬ 
zontal and its tube is pointing directly at the sun. When the tube points directly 
at the sun, the largest possible space is covered by the sunlight on the base of 
the helior. Read the angle of altitude of the sun on the quadrant of the helior. 
Place a piece of cross-section paper on the base of the helior, as before, and 
outline the area lighted up. Count the number of square centimeters lighted 
when the sun is at 90° and at the last reading and place them in the table below. 
Place a thermometer, in a horizontal position, in the lighted area and note its 
temperature reading in the table below. Note also the temperature of the atmos¬ 
phere. These temperatures must be taken out of doors. 

(2) To determine the relative amount of heat received at different times of 
the day. 

On some clear day, make observations with the helior at least three times during 
the day: Early in the morning, at noon, and late in the afternoon. Observe 
the amount of area lighted, the temperature of the lighted area, thq tempera¬ 
ture of the atmosphere as above and place the results in the table below. When 
does the light have the greatest effect, when the rays are most vertical or most 
oblique? Why? At what time of the day will the sun’s heat be most effective? 
Call this maximum amount of area lighted 100 per cent. Divide the area at 
noon by the area covered at each of the other observations to find the per¬ 
centage of area covered compared with the noon area. 


Hour 


Area Lighted 
in Square 
Centimeters 


Helior 

Thermometer 

Reading 


Percentage of 
Area Covered 
Compared with 
Noon Area 


Temperature 

of 

Atmosphere 



















PROBLEMS. 


a On what noon of the year would the area lighted be the smallest? Where, 
on the earth, at that time would the sun’s rays be concentrated over the smallest 
area? Find how many square centimeters would be illuminated under the 
helior on that noon at your locality. 

b Find how many square centimeters would be illuminated at your locality 
under the helior at noon on December 21st. 


Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mentzer & Grover. 


Material. 


Name — 
Address- 


Exercise XII. 

TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE. 

A record of the hourly temperature for six consecutive days, several sheets of 
cross-section paper. 

(/) To draw a daily temperature curve. 

On the cross-section paper, one of the larger or centimeter square spaces from 
left to right should represent two hours. One centimeter space up and down 
should represent two degrees. Number the lines representing the hours and 
degrees. Dot, in its proper place, the temperature for each hour of the first day, 
then draw a line connecting the dots. Make one of these temperature curves 
for each day. Write the reasons for the regular changes of temperature shown 
by the curves and explain any irregularities. 

When was the maximum temperature observed? 

When was the minimum temperature observed? 

What was the range of temperature for the week? 

What was the average temperature for the day showing the maximum tempera¬ 
ture ? 





Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mcntser 6- Grover. 


Material. 


Name — 
Address- 


Exercise XIII. 

TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE. 

A blank United States weather map, 3 outline maps of the world on Mercator’s 
Projection, an annual isotherm map of the world, a July and a January isotherm 
map of the world, an annual temperature range map of the world. 

(j) To indicate places of the same temperature. 

At a given hour the temperature of the following places was 57 0 : Seattle, 
Spokane, Helena, Miles City, Rapid City, Valentine, Lincoln, Keokuk, Spring- 
field, Indianapolis, Cincinnati, Elkins, Washington. On a blank weather map 
of the United States draw a line connecting all of these places. Give this line 
its proper name which shall distinguish what it stands for. 

( 2 ) To make an annual isotherm chart of the world. 

Upon an outline map of the world draw the annual isotherms of 8o°, 70°, 6o°, 
50°, 40°, 30°, 20°, io° and o°. 

Shade or color darkly all surface having an annual average temperature of 70° 
or over. With lighter shadings indicate the regious having a temperature be¬ 
tween 70° and 30°. With a very light shading indicate the regions having a 
temperature between 30° and io°. Upon or near what annual isotherm is your 
locality situated? Find other places, at some distance, on the same isotherm. 
Do all places on the same annual isotherm necessarily have the same climate ? 

(5) To indicate the extreme locations of the heat equator. 

On an outline map of the world indicate the location of the heat equator in 
January by making a* heavy dotted line. Indicate the location of the heat equator 
for July by making a continuous line. Explain why the heat equator oscillates 
with the time of the year. Where and when does the heat equator depart far¬ 
thest from the geographic equator? Explain this great departure at this time 
and place. 

(4) To indicate the annual average range of temperature. 

On an outline map of the world represent the annual average range of tem¬ 
perature by shading or coloring those regions which have less than 20° range, 
those between 20° and 50°, those between 50° and no°, those over no°. 
Where are the ranges greatest, over land or sea? Where is the greatest range 
of temperature? Account for its location. Account for the range of temper¬ 
ature being smaller in the Southern than in the Northern Hemisphere. 




Copyright, 1905, ly Atkinson, Mentser & Grover. 


Name — 
Address 


Exercise XIV. 


Material. 


TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE. 

A blank weather map of the United States. 

(/) To represent the daily isotherms of the United States on a specified day. 

Observations Taken at 8 A. M., 75th Meridian Time. 


Districts and 
Stations. 

Barometer read¬ 
ings, in inches. 

Temperature. 

Wind direction and 

velocity in miles 

per hour. 

Sky and precipita¬ 

tion. 

Atlantic Coast. 






Boston.. 

30.46 

34 

S. E. 

12 

cloudy 

Albany . 

30 34 

32 

S. K. 

20 

New York. 

30.32 

38 

E. 

34 


Philadelphia... . . 

30.24 

4° 

S. E. 

14 

rain 

Washington . 

30.16 

36 

N. Lt. 


Lynchburg. 

30.12 

36 

N. E. Lt. 


Norfolk.. 

30.12 

42 

N. Lt. 


Jacksonville. 

30.12 

66 

S. 

8 

clear 

Tampa. 

30.14 

68 

S. E. 

12 

cloudy 

Gulf States. 






Atlanta .. 

30.02 

5° 

N. E. 

6 

rain 

Mobile. 

30.06 

7° 

S. W. Lt. 

fair 

Montgomery. 

29.98 

70 

S. 

12 

cloudy 

Vicksburg . 

30.08 

62 

N. W. 

12 

fair 

New Orleans. 

30.06 

70 

S. W. 

6 

“ 

Shreveport .. 

30.14 

54 

N. W. 

8 

clear 

Fort Smith . 

30.16 

3» 

w. 

12 

“ 

Little Rock... 

30.06 

48 

W. 

12 

fair 

Galveston. 

30.06 

66 

N. W. 

6 

cloudy 

Palestine . 

30.18 

52 

N. E. 

6 

San Antonio. 

30.04 

62 

N. 

14 

“ 

Fort Worth. 

30.24 

42 

N. 

8 

fair 

Ohio Valley and Tenn. 






Indianapolis. 

2964 

56 

S. W. 

28 

clear 

Pittsburg .. 

29.88 

42 

s. 

6 

rain 

Cincinnati. 

29 74 

58 

S. 

14 

cloudy 

Columbus. 

2972 

54 

s. 

12 

Louisville . 

29.76 

58 

S. 

14 

“ 

Chattanooga .. 

29.98 

50 

S. E. Lt. 

rain 

Memphis . 

30.02 

56 

W. 

14 

fair 

Nashville. 

29.92 

60 

W. 

8 

cloudy 

Parkersburg. 

29.82 

50 

S. E. 

14 

Lake Region. 






Chicago.. 

29-54 

40 

S. W. 

36 

cloudy 

Detroit . 

29.64 

42 

s. 

10 

Grand Haven. 

29.50 

40 

S. 

12 

44 

Marquette. 

29.68 

24 

W. 

12 

snow 

Sault Sie. Marie. 

29.62 

24 

E. 

14 

“ 

Duluth .. 

•29.90 

26 

N. W. 

18 

44 

Cleveland. 

29.68 

48 

S. E. 

30 

rain 

Buffalo . 

29.78 

40 

S. 

18 

cloudy 

Parry Sound . 

29.74 

28 

S. E. 

36 

White River. 

29.80 

18 

N. Lt. 

snow 


Districts and 
Stations. 

Barometer read¬ 

ings, in inches. 

Temperature. 

Wind direction and 

velocity in miles 

per hour. 

Sky and precipita¬ 

tion. 

Upper Miss. Valley 





Cairo. 

29.88 

54 

S. W. 20 

clear 

St. Louis. 

2984 

40 

W. 28 

cloudy 

Springfield, Ill. 

29.74 

38 

W. 20 

Keokuk „ . 

2984 

36 

W. 26 

** 

Davenport. 

29.62 

34 

W. 16 

rain 

Des Moines .. 

29.96 

28 

N. W, 20 

cloudy 

Dubuque. 

29.64 

32 

N.W. 20 

snow 

St. Paul .. 

29.88 

24 

N.W. 16 

fair 

Missouri Valley. 





Kansas City. 

30.08 

32 

N W. 12 

cloudy 

Springfield, Mo... 

30.10 

28 

N. W. 26 

clear 

Concordia . 

30.30 

30 

N.W. 24 

“ 

Omaha . 

30.10 

24 

N.W. 16 

cloudy 

Sioux City.. 

30.12 

18 

N.W. 28 

Huron . 

30.20 

10 

N W. 30 

* * 

Bismark. 

30.58 

— 4 

N.W. 8 

clear 

Moorhead .. 

30.30 

8 

N.W. 20 

cloudy 

Northwest Territory 





Calgary. 

30.62 

-16 

O 

clear 

Minnedosa.. 

30.70 

—12 

S. W. Lt. 

44 

Prince Albert. 

30.68 

—32 

O 

fair 

Swift Current. 

30.72 

—12 

O 

cloudy 

Qu' Appelle.. 

30.64 

— 6 

Lt. 

Rocky Mt. Slopes. 





Havre .. 

30.42 

zero 

N. E. 8 

clear 

Helena. 

30-40 

2 

W. Lt. 

snow 

Miles City_. 

30.50 

2 

N. Lt. 

fair 

Rapid City. 

3050 

4 

N. E. 6 

“ 

Valentine. 

30.48 

4 

N. W. 12 

clear 

North Platte.. 

30.48 

8 

N. W. 14 

44 

Cheyenne. 

30.46 

8 

S. 8 

“ 

Lander .. 

30.36 

4 

S. W. Lt. 

cloudy 

Salt Lake City. 

30.00 

4° 

S. E. 6 

Denver _ . 

30.38 

44 

N. E. 18 

clear 

Pueblo . 

30.30 

18 

E. Lt. 

fair 

Santa Fe. 

30.18 

24 

O 

clear 

El Paso. 

30.14 

30 

N. E. Lt. 

44 

Abilene. 

30.26 

36 

N. 6 

<1 

Amarillo. 

30.30 

22 

N. 14 

< ( 

Oklahoma. 

3 0 .24 

30 

N. 14 

<< 

Dodge City. 

30.38 

18 

N.W. 12 

<< 

Wichita. 

30.30 

24 

N. W. 14 

44 

Grand Junction .. 

30.14 

32 

E. 20 

cloudy 


The temperature for all important stations will be found in the above table. 
Place the temperature in figures on a blank weather map of the United States. 
Draw the isotherms for every ten degrees, using a pencil and making light lines. 
When the isotherms are finished and the work has been reviewed, trace the 
lines with ink. 















































































































Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mentzer & Grover. 


Material. 


Name — 
Address- 


Exercise XV. 

SOME EFFECTS OF BAROMETRIC PRESSURE. 

Pneumatic trough, large-mouthed bottle, piece of cardboard 4x4 in. 

(/) To show the pressure of the atmosphere. 

Fill the pneumatic trough with water. Invert the empty bottle under water in 
the trough. What is the water replacing? Turn the bottle bottom-side up and 
draw it up until only its mouth remains under water. Make a drawing showing 
by means of arrows, where the pressure is exerted which holds the water in the 
bottle. Draw the bottle fully out of water. Why does not the pressure still 
hold the water in the bottle? 

(2) To demonstrate that the pressure is exerted in every direction. 

Fill the bottle full to running over. Dampen the cardboard and place it on the 
mouth of the bottle and press it down gently. Take hold of the bottle and slowly 
turn it up-side down. Turn it in every direction. What conclusion can you draw 
concerning the pressure of the atmosphere? 

PROBLEMS. 

a ■ Take a piece of soft leather like the top of a shoe. Cut it into a round piece 
about three inches in diameter. Tie a knot in the end of a three-foot string and 
put it through the leather so that the knot holds it firmly from slipping through. 
Moisten the leather thoroughly and a “sucker” has been made. Press it firmly 
against a smooth rock or tin can. How much weight will it hold up? 
b Examine a pump or a syringe. Make a drawing of it which will show how 
its piston works and write an explanation of how the atmospheric pressure 
causes it to “suck up” water. Find out how high a pump will draw water. 
c Examine a mercurial barometer carefully and make a drawing of it which 
will indicate how the pressure of the atmosphere causes the height of the mer¬ 
cury to vary. 




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' ii'.V: Vi.- 

: f I 

• : i 

Exercise XVI. 

BAROMETRIC CURVES AND VARIATIONS. 

One sheet of cross-section paper, a barometric record for two consecutive weete. 
(j) To draw a barometric curve representing the change in barometric pres 

line UD and down, should represent one-tenth of an inch. NumDer tne lines 
and date the spaces to correspond with the barometric readings and the date 
indicated in your table. In its proper place, dot m the barometric reading for each 
dav Draw a line connecting the dots. Underneath the curve thus made, indi¬ 
cate the condition of the weather for the day, whether fair, cloudy or stormy. 
How does the barometric pressure tend to vary with the humidity. 








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Exercise XVII. 

A STUDY OF THE EARTH’S BAROMETRIC PRESSURE. 

A chart showing the annual isobars of the earth, an outline map of the world. 
(7) To indicate graphically the earth’s annual average barometric pressure. 

On an outline map of the world on Mercator’s Projection draw the isobars for 
every one-tenth of an inch variation in annual average barometric pressure, over 
the earth’s surface. Shade or color darkly those regions having a pressure of 
over 30 inches and shade or color lightly those regions having a pressure less 
than 29.9 inches. What latitudes show the highest pressure? How does the 
equatorial low pressure area correspond to the region of the heat equator ? (See 

Exercise Xlfl. 3.) 




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Exercise XVIII. 

BAROMETRIC CHART OF THE UNITED STATES. 

A blank weather map of the United States, a list of the barometric pressures 
at various points in the United States. (See Exercise XIV.) 

(/) To represent the barometric pressure over the United States on some 
specified day and hour by means of isobars. 

Upon a blank weather map of the United States copy the barometric readings 
given in the table of Exercise XIV. for the various stations. Mark the areas 
where the pressure is lowest with the word “Low” and mark the areas where the 
pressure is highest with the word “High.” Beginning with the centers of low 
pressure connect the places of equal pressure with isobars extending around the 
center, making isobars for every one-tenth of an inch. The isobars of high 
pressure should extend around the high pressure areas. 





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Exercise XIX. 

AIR CURRENTS AS AFFECTED BY PRESSURE. 

An empty paste-board box, a piece of candle, a piece of cotton string soaked 
in saltpeter and dried, matches. 

( 1 ) To demonstrate the effect of temperature and expansion of air upon the 
direction of air currents. 

Stand the pasteboard box on one end with the cover removed. In the top end 
cut a hole about an inch square. In the back of the box, about an inch from 
the bottom, cut another hole about an inch square. Place the candle in the 
center of the bottom end of the box. Light the candle and put the cover on the 
box. Light the string and hold it over the top hole. What is the direction of 
the air current? Hold the lighted string near the lower opening. What is the 
direction of the air current? Remove the cover and blow out the candle. After 
replacing the cover place the lighted string near the holes as previously. Are 
the air currents still present? Make a drawing of a longitudinal section of the 
box and indicate by arrows the direction of the air currents through the box, 
How does heat affect the volume of a body of air? (See Exercise X., 4.) Why 
should heated air be lighter than cooler air? Why should light air tend to risel* 
What will take the place of the light air? 

(2) To determine and indicate the direction of winds about high and low 
pressure areas. 

On the map in Exercise XVIII. you have indicated where the air is light and 
where the air is heavy, what then should be the direction of the atmospheric 
currents in the center of the low area? What should be the direction of the 
atmospheric currents in the center of the high area? On this map indicate, 
by means of a few arrows, the direction the atmosphere should be moving in the 
regions surrounding the low .areas and around the high areas. Compare your 
determinations with the observed data in the table of Exercise XIV. 





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Exercise XX. 

PLANETARY WINDS. 

Isothermic and isobaric charts of the world from Exercises XIII. and XVII., a 
United States pilot chart, an outline map of the world. 

(/) To determine the location and direction of the equatorial planetary winds 
from temperature and pressure data. 

Study your isothermic and isobaric maps, Exercises XIII. and XVII., and 
determine the following: According to what you know of the effects of tem¬ 
perature and pressure on air currents what should be the direction of the air 
currents at the equatorial low pressure area? What should be the direction of 
the currents at the high pressure areas north and south of the equator? What 
should be the relative direction of the currents between these high and low 
pressure areas at the surface of the earth? What should be the relative direc¬ 
tion of the currents between the high and low pressure areas in the upper atmos¬ 
phere? Indicate the answers to these questions on a drawing of a sphere by 
showing the convection current in arrows at the side of the sphere. 

(2) To determine the location and direction of the planetary winds of the 
different latitudes from observed data. 

The blue arrows on the United States pilot charts indicate the direction of the 
wind. The longer an arrow is the more frequently is the wind from that direc¬ 
tion indicated. The more “feathers” there are on an arrow the stronger is the 
wind. Observe a belt in a low latitude (note what latitude) having variable 
winds, i. e., winds from many directions. The figures in the circles indicate the 
per cent of time the place is calm or free from horizontal air currents; is the 
per cent great or small in this equatorial belt? The region having these charac¬ 
teristics is called the Belt of Calms or Doldrums. How does the location of 
the Belt of Calms compare with the equatorial low pressure area? Outline this 
Belt of Calms on an outline map of the world. North and south of the Belt of 
Calms is a belt of winds called the Trade Winds; the north and south boun¬ 
daries are marked by dash lines. From what prevailing directions do the Trade 
Winds blow? Are they strong or light winds? Is it calm much or little of the 
time in this belt? How does the location of these Trade Wind Belts correspond 
with the location of the region lying - between the high and low pressure regions ? 
Outline the Trade Wind Belts on the outline map. North of the Trade Winds 
is the Horse Latitude Belt. In what latitude is it? From what direction are 
the winds? Are the winds strong or light? Is the region more or less calm 
than the Trade Wind Belt? How does the location of the Horse Latitudes 
correspond to the areas of high pressure? Outline the Horse Latitudes on the 
map. Still further north are the Prevailing Westerlies, merging into the Cir¬ 
cumpolar Whirl. What is the direction and strength of the winds in the Belt 
of the Prevailing Westerlies? Outline the Belts of the Prevailing Westerlies 
and the Circumpolar Whirl on the map. Fill in the regions you have outlined 
on the map by determining the direction of the winds as given on the pilot chart. 
Use arrows to indicate the direction of surface winds, small circles for calms 
where currents usually ascend or descend and small crosses for belts of greatly 
varying winds. Compare your map with the Planetary Wind map in your text 
and complete the wind belts over the earth’s surface. 




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Exercise XXI. 

ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE. 

A small pie tin, one small tin cup, two watch glasses, one glass tumbler. 

To determine some of the things upon which evaporation depends. 

(7) Put about an inch of water in the tin cup. Pour the water into a pie tin 
and pour the same amount of water into the cup. Place the two vessels near 
together where they may be observed from time to time. From which vessel 
does the water evaporate fastest? What effect has the amount of surface 
exposed upon the rate of evaporation? 

(<?) Put a few drops of water in each of the watch glasses, but allow the 
amounts in each to be equal. Place one vessel where it will be out of any 
draught, but easily observed. Fan or blow the other for some minutes. From 
which vessel does evaporation take place the more rapidly? What effect have 
moving air currents, over a body of water, upon the rate of evaporation? Ex¬ 
plain why this should be so. 

(3) Put equal amounts of water in the watch glasses. Place them in a safe 
place near together. Invert the glass tumbler over one and leave the other 
exposed. What collects on the inside of the tumbler? From which vessel does 
evaporation take place the more rapidly? What effect has moist atmosphere 
upon the rate of evaporation? 

(4) What effect has high temperature upon evaporation? Give an illustration 
to prove your answer. 




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Exercise XXII. 

ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE. 

A flask, a square of glass, a tin cup, a thermometer, some cracked ice or snow. 
To determine the conditions under which condensation takes place. 

(7) Heat some water in the flask until steam arises. Hold the cool square of 
glass over the steam. What collects on the glass? Where does it come from? 
Why does it collect ? 

(2) Be sure the tin cup is dry on the outside, then fill it with water and put 
some ice or snow in the water. What collects on the outside of the cup? Where 
does it come from? Why does it collect? Empty and dry the cup. Fill it 
three-fourths full of water. Put the thermometer bulb in the water. Drop ice 
into the cup, one small piece at a time, and stir with the thermometer. Keep watch 
for the condensation on the outside of the cup. Note the temperature of the 
water at the moment when the outside of the cup shows the first sign of con¬ 
densation? This temperature is called the “dew point.” Try the experiment 
out of doors, in other rooms and on other days to see if the dew point 1 is always 
the same? How does the temperature of the atmosphere seem to affect the 
dew point? How does the amount of moisture in the air seem to affect the 
dew point? 







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Exercise XXIII. 

ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE. 

Three large-mouth bottles, 8 oz., 4 oz. and 2 oz., respectively. 

(/) To illustrate the meaning of relative and absolute humidity. 

Fill the 2-oz. bottle with water and pour it into the 8-oz. bottle. In the same 
way put 2 ounces of water in each of the bottles. What is the capacity of the 
8-oz. bottle? What is the absolute amount of water in the 8-oz. bottle? This 
is the absolute humidity of the bottle. What is the relative amount of water in 
the 8-oz. bottie, compared with its capacity? This is the relative humidity of the 
bottle. Write a definition of your own for each of the following terms: Ca¬ 
pacity, absolute humidity, relative humidity. Of the 4-oz. bottle tell its capacity, 
its absolute humidity in ounces and its relative humidity in per cent. Why is 
the relative humidity of the 4-oz. bottle greater than the relative humidity of the 
8-oz. bottle? Of the 2-oz. bottle tell its capacity, its absolute humidity, and its 
relative humidity. W T hat would happen if more water were put into the 2-oz. 
bottle? When the relative humidity of the atmosphere is 100% what would 
happen if more water entered into it? What would happen if the 2-oz. 
bottle could be squeezed so its capacity were less than 2 oz. ? What happens 
when the relative humidity of the atmosphere is 100% and the capacity of the 
atmosphere is made less? By referring to Exercises XXII. and X., 4, tell what 
usually causes the lessening of the capacity of the atmosphere. 




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Exercise XXIV. 


ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE. 


Material. 


Two Fahrenheit thermometers, a piece of cardboard three inches longer t an 
the thermometers and three inches wide, a piece of cotton cloth one men wide 
and four inches long, a small vial, pieces of thread. 

(/) To construct and use a hygrometer, or wet and dry bulb thermometer. 
Place one end of the piece of cloth around the bulb of one thermometer and 
tie it on with a piece of thread. Place the two thermometers on the cardboard, 
about two inches apart, so their tops come to the top of the cardboard, hasten 
them onto the cardboard securely by tying thread around them and through 

the cardboard. Put the end of the cloth into the vial and fasten the vial 

securely to the cardboard in such a position that the vial will be directly udder 

the thermometer with the covered bulb, but that the vial and the bulb will not 

touch. Hang the hygrometer, thus made, in a vertical position. Note the 
reading of the two thermometers; they should register equal temperatures. 
Fill the vial with water which has been standing in the room long enough to 
be at the room temperature. Moisten the cloth wick on the bulb of the wet-bulb 
thermometer. Fan the hygrometer for a moment and note the temperature 
of the thermometer again. What causes the difference, in their reading ? Will 
the water evaporate faster when the air in the room is dry or humid? Will 
the wet-bulb thermometer register lower when air is dry or when the air is 
humid? Explain why. Of what does the dry-bulb thermometer register the 
temperature ? 

( 2 ) To determine the relative humidity of the room. 

Fan the hygrometer and verv carefully determine the reading of the wet-bulb 
and of the dry-bulb thermometers. Make a note of these temperatures and 
determine the difference in temperature readings. To find the relative humidity 
use the table below. In the top line find the number indicating the difference 
in temperature which you have observed. In the first column find the number 
indicating the temperature registered by the dry-bulb thermometer. The figure 
at the intersection of the two lines, traced down and across respectively, is the 
percent of moisture in the atmosphere of the room or the relative humidity. 


TABLE FOR FINDING RELATIVE HUMIDITY: Percentages 





































































(3) To determine the absolute humidity of the air in the room. 

The following table gives the capacity, in grains, of one cubic foot of atmos¬ 
phere at the different temperatures: 


Degrees of 
Temper¬ 
ature. 

Grains of 
Water. 

Degrees of 
Temper¬ 
ature. 

Grains of 
Water. 

Degrees of 
Temper¬ 
ature. 

Grains of 
Water. 

Degrees of 
Temper¬ 
ature. 

Grains of 
Water. 

20 

1.235 

42 

3.064 

64 

6.563 

86 

13.127 

22 

1.355 

44 

3.294 

66 

7.009 

88 

13.937 

24 

1.483 

46 

3.539 

68 

7.480 

90 

14.790 

26 

1.623 

48 

3.800 

70 

7.980 

92 

15.689 

28 

1.773 

50 

4.076 

72 

8.508 

94 

16.634 

30 

1.935 

52 

4.372 

74 

9.066 

96 

17.626 

32 

2.113 

54 

4.685 

76 

9.655 

98 

18.671 

34 

2.279 

56 

5.016 

78 

10.277 

100 

19.766 

36 

2.457 ' 

58 

5.370 

80 

10.934 



38 

2.646 

60 

5.745 

82 

11.626 



40 

2.849 

62 

6.142 

84 

12.356 




The relative humidity, which you have obtained, shows what proportion of the 
capacity of the atmosphere is occupied w ? ith moisture. Find from the above 
table what the capacity of the atmosphere is at the observed temperature. Then 
•find how many grains of moisture are actually in a cubic foot of air in the 
room. How many more grains could each cubic foot hold? 

Determine and tabulate the following data for the following places: 


Place 

Dry Bulb 
Reading 

Wet Bulb 
Reading 

Difference in 
Tempera¬ 
tures 

Relative 

Humidity 

Absolute 

Humidity 

School room 






Out doors 






Sleeping room 
(at home) 





































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Exercise XXV. 

ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE. 

Two copper or tin vessels with straight sides about six inches high and square 
or round bottoms, the bottom of one should be one-tenth the diameter of the 
other. A small ruler marked in inches. A blank relief map of the United 
States. 

(/) To measure the amount of rainfall with a simple rain gauge. 

Set the larger vessel in an open place away from buildings or other obstructions. 
After a rain measure the amount of water in the vessel by putting the ruler 
into the water. Note the result. Drain the water into the smaller vessel with¬ 
out spilling any of it. Measure its depth. Compare the reading with that of 
the first measurement. An inch on the ruler, when measured in the smaller 
vessel, measures how much rainfall? What is the object of pouring the water 
into the smaller vessel? 

Keep your rain gauge exposed and note the amount of daily precipitation in 
your weather observation tables. 

( 2 ) To comprehend the annual amount of rainfall over the United States. 

By consulting the United States annual rainfall chart in your text outline the 
following areas of rainfall on a blank relief map of the United States. Note 
what mountains and other topographic features form the boundaries for the 
different regions. 

Outline the- regions having an annual rainfall of over 60 inches, regions 
having between 50 and 60 inches, between 30 and 50 inches, between 10 and 
30 inches and those having less than 10 inches. Shade or color the regions 
to correspond with the amount of annual rainfall. What is the annual rainfall 
of your locality? In going south along the Pacific coast from Oregon how does 
the rainfall vary? In going south along the Atlantic coast from Maine how 
does the rainfall vary? In going east across the United States from Great 
Salt Lake to the Atlantic coast how does the rainfall vary? 

Give the reasons for the rainfall conditions on the windward side of mountain 
ranges, on the leeward side of mountain ranges, and in regions surrounded bv 
mountain ranges. 




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Exercise XXVI. 

STORMS, CYCLONES AND ANTI-CYCLONES. 

A number of United States weather maps arranged in consecutive order, a sheet 
of thin tracing paper, a blank weather map of the United States. 

(/) To determine the general direction of the wind in a cyclonic or “low” 
area. 

Place a piece of tracing paper, about two inches square over the “LOW” of a 
weather map. Write “LOW” in the middle and “N” at the upper margin. 
Trace all arrows indicating wind direction which your paper covers. Place the 
same paper over the “LOW” in another map, being careful to center the paper 
as before and to have the “N” to the north. Trace the arrows indicating the 
direction of the wind. Repeat on other maps until your tracing paper is cov¬ 
ered with arrows. Paste the paper in your note book and write a statement 
of the atmospheric currents near the low area and at the storm center. Explain 
why the wind direction is as you find it indicated. 

(2) To determine the general direction of the wind in an anti-cyclonic area or 
“high” area. 

Use a piece of tracing paper on the “HIGH” as indicated above and record the 
data. Explain why the wind direction is as you find it in “high” areas. 

(<$) To determine the general temperature conditions under cyclonic and anti- 
cyclonic conditions. 

Choose a number of maps which show observations taken during the same 
season of the year. In one column write down the temperature which is indi¬ 
cated nearest the center of each “low” area which happens to be in the central 
Mississippi Basin. Find the average temperature of “low” areas for this 
season of the year in the central Mississippi Basin. In the same way write 
down the temperature nearest the center of “high” areas in the central Missis¬ 
sippi Basin and find their average. When does the higher temperature prevail 
when a cyclone or anti-cyclone passes over a locality? Give a reason for this 
condition. 

(j) To determine the position of rainy areas in relation to the cyclones and 
anti-cyclones. 

Observe in many weather maps the area in which rain or snow is falling at the 
time of observation. How large are the districts? What is their position with 
reference to the “low” or “high” areas? Observe the extent and relative loca¬ 
tion of the cloudy areas. Give reasons why the rainy and cloudy areas should 
be thus located in reference to the “low” areas. 

(4) To determine the paths of cyclonic storms over the United States. 

Choose weather maps of several consecutive days through which a distinct 
storm persists. On a blank United States map draw a small circle where the 
“low” area is located on the weather map. Write the date of the weather map 
in the circle. On the same blank map make another circle and date in the 
position of the “low” area on the succeeding day. Connect the two circles by 
a line of arrows. Continue as many days as the “low” area is visible. Your 
line of arrows marks the path of the storm. In this way and on the same map, 
trace several storm paths at different seasons. How many miles a day do the 
storms move on the average? Over what part of the United States do most 
of the cyclonic storms originate? Describe their usual path. Over what other 
parts of the United States do the storms originate? Where do they pass off 
from the United States? 

(5) To indicate the location of storms on the weather map. 

Turn to your United States isobaric map (Exercise XVIII.) and shade the 
regions lightly where conditions indicate that cloudy weather prevails. Shade 
the regions darkly where the conditions indicate there should be rain. Compare 
the regions you have shaded with the data concerning the regions in the table 
of Exercise XIV. 




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Exercise XXVII. 

STORMS—WEATHER FORECASTS. 

A United States weather map with the forecast cut off. 

( 1 ) To interpret a weather map. 

Reading from the weather map, determine and tabulate below the conditions 
existing, in your own locality, at the time the observations were taken: 

Temperature: degrees. 

Barometric pressure: inches. 

Wind direction: 

State of humidity: Fair, cloudy, rain or snow. 

( 2 ) To forecast conditions from a weather map. 

Forecast what the weather conditions will be, at your locality, twenty-four 
hours after the time of the observations indicated on the map. 

Terrtperature: degrees. 

Barometric pressure: inches. * 

Wind direction: 

State of humidity: 





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Exercise XXVIII. 

RAINFALL OF THE EARTH. 

An outline map of the world on Mercator’s projection. 

(/) To determine the theoretical rainfall of the earth. 

By applying the principles of rainfall, learned by the study of local “high” and 
“low” areas, to the conditions existing over the earth you should be able to 
determine approximately the rainfall over the earth’s surface. Consult your 
maps of the earth’s annual temperature (Exercise XIII., 4), barometric pressure 
(Exercise XVII.), and planetary winds (Exercise XX.) and determine what 
regions of the earth would have the heaviest, lightest and moderate rainfall. 
Indicate these regions on an outline map of the world and indicate their approxi¬ 
mate rainfall by shading the regions to correspond. 




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Exercise XXIX. 

RAINFALL OF THE EARTH. 

A relief map of each of the continents, a chart or maps showing the amount 
of rainfall on each continent. 

(7) To comprehend the location of the rainfall regions of the earth and the 
causal conditions determining the rainfall of each region. 

On each of the relief maps of the continents outline and shade or color the 
regions of annual rainfall of over 80 inches, between 40 and 80 inches, between 
20 and 40 inches, less than 20 inches, as they are shown in your rainfall maps. 
As vou outline each region note what annual temperature, pressure and plan¬ 
etary winds prevail in the region and what conditions of topography influence 
the amount of rainfall. Write these causal conditions in full for each region 
in each continent. 





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Exercise XXX. 

LIFE CONDITIONS OF THE EARTH. 

A map showing the life belts of the earth. 

(/) To determine the causal conditions for the location of the life belts of 
the earth. 

On Ihe map note the location of each of the characteristic life belts: The Trop¬ 
ical Forest, The Tropical Savanna Belts, The Tropical Desert Belts, The Trade 
Wind Coasts, The Temperate Agricultural Regions, The Temperate Plains, The 
Temperate Deserts, The Northern Forest Belt and The Northern Tundra Belt. 
Of each of the belts tell its annual average temperature, its annual average baro¬ 
metric pressure, its location relative to the planetary winds, its annual average 
rainfall and tell something of its characteristic vegetation, animal life and social 
life. Tabulate all of the facts concerning each belt and region in a neat and con¬ 
cise form. 

Account for the characteristic conditions on the windward side of mountains 
in the belt of the Westerly Winds and for the contrasting conditions on the lee¬ 
ward side of the same mountains. 

Account for the differences in climate and productions on the east and west 
coasts of continents in the Westerly Wind Belt. 




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Exercise XXXI. 

THE OCEAN. 

Cross section paper, text book giving data concerning relative extent of land and 
water surface and data concerning relative height of land and depth of ocean. 

( 1 ) To represent diagramatically the relative extent of land and water surface 

of the earth. . 

From your text or reference books find out, as accurately as possible, the per¬ 
centage of the earth’s surface which is land and the percentage which is water. 
Allow one of the cubic centimeter spaces to represent one per cent Outline 
one hundred spaces. Shade sufficient spaces to represent the land surface with 
a heavy shading and those representing the water surface with a light shading. 

(2) To represent diagramatically the relative height of land and depth of 

water. # . 

From your text or reference books find out the height of the loftiest peak of 
land and the average height of land. Also find the greatest depth of ocean and 
the average depth of the ocean. Draw a straight line across a page of cross- 
section paper. Allow the space between the light lines, up and down, to repre¬ 
sent 1000 feet. At the left of the paper place a dot at the proper place above 
the line to represent the highest point of land. At one quarter of the way across 
the page place another dot to represent the average height of land. At three- 
quarters across the page make a dot below the line to represent the average 
depth of the ocean. At the right side of the page make a dot to represent the 
deepest measured water. Connect these dots with a curvd line and note on the 
diagram what each part represents. 






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Exercise XXXII. 

OCEAN CURRENTS. 

A map showing ihe direction of the planetary winds, an outline map of the 
world on Mercator’s projection. 

(/) To determine the location and direction of the ocean currents by consider¬ 
ing their cause. 

On an outline map of the world show the direction of the prevailing winds 
off the following coasts by placing one or two lightly drawn arrows in the places 
indicated: Off the western coast of Spain. Off the northwestern coast of 
Africa. Off the southwestern coast of Africa. Off the southeastern coast of 
South America. Off the New England and New Foundland coasts. Off the 
southern point of Greenland. If the arrows represent the prevailing winds they 
must also show the direction the surface water will be blown at these places. 
Represent the surface currents of water as you reason they should go in the 
north Atlantic and in the south Atlantic ocean. Compare your deductions with 
the ocean-current chart in your text. Explain why these should be warm cur¬ 
rents of water. 

In the same way represent the prevailing wind directions off the following coasts 
in the Pacific ocean: Off the southwest coast of Mexico and Central America. 
Off the east coast of New Guinea. Off the coast of Japan. Off the west coast 
of South America at about 20° S. Off the west coast of New Zealand. Repre¬ 
sent the ocean currents of the north Pacific and of the south Pacific ocean. De¬ 
termine the direction and represent the currents of the Indian ocean. 

Represent the wind direction in the Antarctic ocean. Show the ocean currents 
of the Antarctic. What will be the temperature of these Antarctic currents? 
Give the reasons why there should be a cold current running along the southwest 
coast of South America (Chili). Represent and account for the cold currents 
which enter the Atlantic and Pacific oceans from the Arctic ocean. 




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Exercise XXXIII. 

A STUDY OF MINERALS. 

A few common minerals, each one labeled with its name, a small vial of dilute 
hydro-chloric acid and glass drop-rod, a small piece of glass, a knitting needle 
or steel scratches A magnifying glass. 

(1) To become acquainted with the distinguishing characteristics of a few 
common minerals. 

Study each specimen according to the following outline and make a concise, 
tabulated report on each specimen. 

1. Name. 

2. Color, and whether uniform or variegated. 

3. Transparent, translucent or opaque. 

4. Crystalline, semi-crystalline or amorphous. 

5. If the specimen is a crystal give the shape of the crystal, number of faces, 
relative size of faces. 

6. Fracture: Whether splitting in cleavage planes or shelly fracture. 

7. Hardness: Will it scratch glass, will it show a scratch with steel, with the 
thumb nail? 

8. Acid test: Effervesence or not. 

9. Give any other characteristics of the mineral you notice. 

10. Of what use is the mineral? 

11. Give your reasons, from what you have observed of the mineral, for think¬ 
ing it durable or weak. 

12 . What agent of erosion will have the greatest destructive effect? 






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Exercise XXXIV. 

A STUDY OF ROCKS. 

A number of common rocks, each labeled with its name and all separated into 
their respective classes. A collection of unnamed but numbered specimens of 
rocks and minerals for identification. A small vial of dilute hydrochloric acid 
and drop-rod. A piece of glass. A knitting needle or steel scratcher. A mag¬ 
nifying glass. 

(1) To become acquainted with the distinguishing characteristics of a few 
common rocks. 

Study each specimen according to the following outline and make a concise, 
tabulated report on each specimen: 

Igneous Rocks. 

1. Name. 

2. Color. 

3. Describe each mineral composing the specimen as to its color, fracture, hard¬ 
ness, effect of acid, name. 

4. Relative quantity of each mineral in the rock. 

5. Relative size of the crystals of each mineral. 

6. Durability of the specimen, whether solid, pliable or easily rubbing off. 

7. Other noticeable characteristics of the rock. 

8. Uses of the rock. 

Sedimentary Rocks. 

1. Name. 

2. Color. 

3. Does the specimen show stratification? If so, describe it. 

4. Is the specimen firm or friable? Will it make a good building stone? 

5. Acid test: Effervesence or not. 

6. Describe the structure under the following heads: Size of grains composing 
the rock. Colors of different grains. Hardness of grains. How grains are 
cemented together. Color of the cement. Names of minerals composing the 
grains. 

7. Does the specimen show any organic remains? 

8. Other noticeable characteristics. 

9. Describe conditions under which it seems to have been formed. 

10. Uses to which the rock is put. 

Metamorphic Rocks. 

1. Name. 

2. General color and distribution of color: solid, banded, mottled or irregular. 

3. Crystalline, semi-crystalline or granular. 

4. Size of crystals or grains. 

5. What kind of fracture do the broken surfaces of the composing parts show? 

6. Hardness: scratch glass, scratched by iron or thumb-nail. 

7. Acid test: effervescence or not. 

8. Other observed characteristics. 

9. Was the specimen apparently metamorphosed from igneous or sedimentary 
rock? From what rock? 

10. Uses to which the rock is put. 

(2) To identify common rock and mineral specimens. 

Identify each specimen by following the outline. Make a concise tabulated 
report on each specimen. 

1. Number of specimen. 

2. Class: Mineral, igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic. 

3. Substances composing the specimen. 

4. Distinguishing characteristics which indicate its variety. 

5. Name of the specimen. 





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Exercise XXXV. 

A STUDY OF SOILS. 

Labeled samples of the following soils: Clay, sand, sand loam, clay loam, humus 
soil, and others, if common in locality. Glass plate. Small vial of hydrochloric 
acid and drop-rod. Test tubes. Simple microscope. Two percolators made of 
a 5-inch piece of J4-inch glass tubing fitted at one end with a rubber or cork 
stopper having two small holes and a thin layer of cotton laid in above the 
stopper. Evaporating dishes. 

(/) To become acquainted with the distinguishing characteristics of the com¬ 
mon soils. 

Examine each of the specimens of soil and write a report on each after the 
following outline. 
a General color of the soil. 

b Shake gently about a teaspoonful of soil in a large test-tube two-thirds full 
of water, till the material is thoroughly suspended; then let it settle. Note care¬ 
fully what part settles first and what part last. Does the soil thus separate into 
widely differing grades or have the grades the same general appearance? De¬ 
scribe each grade. 

c Spread a small portion of the dry soil on a glass plate. Examine it closely 
with a magnifier. Can you distinguish the grains of the different grades which 
were separate in b? Describe the appearance of each grade of grains, giving 
color, and wherever possible, shape of grains and kinds of minerals. By applying 
a drop of acid to a pinch of the soil something of its nature may be determined. 

(2) To determine the porosity of soils. 

Fill a percolator, to the depth of about three inches, one with each sample of 
soil. Hold a finger over the stopper holes and press the soil until it is compact 
in the tube. Arrange the percolator so it will have its lower end immersed in 
water to half an inch above the cork. Watch the water soak up through the soil. 
Does the water rise through the soil slowly or rapidly? In this way compare the 
porosity of the soils. 

(3) To determine the solubility of soils. 

Suspend each percolator above an evaporating dish and slowly pour 
into the tube enough water to fill the evaporating dish. Let the percolator stand 
until the water has percolated through the soil and filled the dish. What is the 
appearance of the drain water? Slowly evaporate the drain water from the dish. 
What is the nature of the sediment left ? By comparing the amount of sediment 
thus obtained from the different soils an approximate comparison of the solu¬ 
bility of the soils, may be had. Of what use to vegetation is the soluble part of 
the soil? What is the effect of rain on the soluble parts of the soil? Will the 
top soil be richer before or after a rain ? 




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Exercise XXXVI. 

INTRODUCTION TO STUDY OF CONTOUR LINES. 

A small modeling board about one foot square, soft clay, a foot rule, a pointed 
stick about one foot long, a sheet of cross-section paper. 

(/) To model an. island and map it with a contour map. 

Let the board represent the water level. Out of the clay build up a mountainous 
island which you have seen or can imagine. The island should be about six 
inches wide, nine inches long, and five inches high. Make the surface of the 
island as irregular as you would imagine it to be. Suppose the island built to 
the horizontal scale of one inch to the mile and the vertical scale of one hundred 
feet to the inch, give the dimensions of your island. To measure the height of 
the island stand the foot rule vertically on the water level and place the pointed 
stick at right angles to the rule, so that it measures the height of the island. 
Mark off, on the island, lines which will show the hundred-foot levels in the 
following manner: Place the rule as you did in measuring the height. Place 
the pointer at the height of one inch on the rule and hold it firmly so that the 
point touches the model. Shove the rule around the island so that the pointer 
makes a slight scratch in the clay, an inch high, all around the model. Repeat 
the operation to mark the 200-foot line, the 300-foot line, etc. Turn the 
model up so that it may be viewed from the top and note how the lines approach 
and fall away from each other. Where the surface slope is gradual do the lines 
appear near together or far apart? Place the model in a convenient position and 
on a sheet of cross-section paper draw a contour map of the island to the hori¬ 
zontal scale of one centimeter equaling one mile. First measure several diameters 
of the island on the paper and then by free-hand draw the outline of the island. 
Estimate the distances between the hundred-foot contours and draw them inside 
of the outline. 




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Exercise XXXVII. 

ELEMENTARY CONTOUR EXERCISE. 
A sheet of cross-section paper, a foot rule. 


e 

1 



Scale: One inch equals one mile. 

(/) To comprehend a simple contour map and draw its profile. 

The above drawing is a contour map of an imaginary mountain island in the 
ocean, with a stream on one side. 

a What is the contour interval ? What is the number of contour lines ? What is 
the height of the top of the island above sea level? 

b What does the number 500 denote? What lines are heavier than others, 
and why? 

c How many light contour lines between two heavy ones? How many spaces? 
How many feet? In determining altitude do we count lines or spaces? 
d Where the contours are far apart, what kind of slope is indicated? Where 
close together? With ruler and pencil draw a line from the top of the island 
to the shore down the steepest slope. Also a line down the gentlest slope. 
e What is the scale of miles ? How many miles long is the island ? How many 
miles wide? 

f Notice that the contours bend up stream where crossing the river. Do they 
bend uphill ? What do these bends indicate ? 

g Draw a profile of the island along the dotted line AB, making the horizontal 
scale the same as the scale of the map. Make the vertical scale equal 1 cm. to 
500 feet. 

Note: Suggestions for making profiles from contour maps: Place a strip of 
paper along the line chosen for the profile. Make marks on the strip corre¬ 
sponding to the contours and write the values below the marks. Lay the strip 
on a sheet of cross-section paper along a line which should be marked sea level 
or some other convenient base level. Above each mark on the strip make a dot 
on the cross-section paper at the proper height, depending on the vertical scale, 
and connect the dots by a line which will be the profile. 










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Exercise XXXVIII. 

A STUDY OF RIVER ACTION. 

Moulding sand, some small stones, soft clay. 

To demonstrate the formation and aging of a river. 

Take a large mass of moulding sand and build up a hill on top of the trough 
or sink. Make the hill to be fully ten inches high at the back and slope gradually 
toward the front over a distance of at least two feet. Pack the sand down hard 
and imbed some rock or layers of clay in the surface of the hill; then put on 
another layer of sand. Do not pack this upper layer or smooth off the surface 
of the hill, but leave it with rolling hollows, to have the natural appearance of a 
long land slope. 

(1) Turn a very light spray of water over the surface of the hill with the 
sprinkler, to imitate a gentle rain storm, until all of the hollows form small lakes. 
Make a drawing of the slope containing the lakes. 

(2) Turn the spray onto the extreme back of the hill and allow a small stream 
to cut its way down the slope, through the lakes, to the front of the hills and 
flow off into the trough beneath. Notice carefully the work done by the min¬ 
iature river and make drawings and write explanations of the various features. 
The following should be found: 

a The formation of a bed. What conditions determine the course of the river? 
In what part of the stream does it cut with the greatest force? How does it 
form a canyon? Describe a consequent stream. 

b Cutting down of lakes. What becomes of the lakes? Where does the river 
cut out the lake shore to drain it? What is left where the lake stood? 
c Falls. Where are the falls formed? What relation do the falls bear to the 
old lake bed ? How do the harder lavers of sand or clay or rocks aid in forming 
falls? 

d Flood plain. What is the water doing with the soil it carries off the hill into 
the sink? Make the stream of water much smaller for a while, what is left 
where the water formerly flowed ? Make a drawing of the flood plain. 
e River sand bars. Place a small stone in the stream of water back in the sink. 
Where does it make the water flow slower, up or down stream from it? On 
which side of it will the sediment deposit? Make a drawing of the sand bar. 
f Delta. Dam up the exit and make a pool of still deep water. Increase the 
flow of your water at the source of the stream and notice the deposition of sedi¬ 
ment in the deep water until it comes to the water line. Decrease the flow of 
water and make a drawing of the delta and show how it was formed. 




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Exercise XXXIX. 

A STUDY OF RIVER DEVELOPMENT. 

The Ottawa, Ill., sheet of the U. S. G. S. A relief map of the United States. 

(/) To comprehend the characteristics of a Young Region. 

This area represents a young country about as the continental ice-sheet left :t, 
except that the streams have done some erosion since the glacial period. The 
Illinois river, during the closing years of the glacial period, was a large river, 
filling the entire valley shown on the map, and draining Lake Chicago, the ances¬ 
tor of Lake Michigan. 

a Give the contour interval and the scale of the map. 

b What part of a square degree does this map represent? How many square 
miles ? Indicate the location of this region on the relief map. 

The Region. 

c Find a hill top. How do you recognize it? Give its location by latitude and 
longitude, and by giving the number of miles and its direction, from Ottawa. 
Give the length, breadth and altitude of the hill. 

d The Prairie. Where is the largest level area on the map? Give its altitude. 
In what direction and how many miles could you go on it without changing your 
altitude more than-ten feet? Standing in the middle of this level area could you 
see Ottawa? Are the wagon roads on it straight or crooked? In what direction 
do the main roads extend? Why? 

The Valleys. 

e This entire area once had a topography almost like that of the prairie; observe 
how the surface has been changed by the rivers. About how wide is the Illinois 
River Valley? How many feet deep? The average slope here is nine inches 
per mile. . Compare the Fox River Valley with the Illinois in width, depth and 
slope. Get the slope by dividing the contour interval by the number of miles 
between two consecutive contour lines crossing the river. How does a valley 
change in width, depth and slope as it gets older? In what part of Buck Creek 
is the slope steepest? In what part is the valley deepest? How does Covet 
Creek differ from Buck Creek in the position of its steep slope, in the length 
of the deeper part of its valley, and in the frequency of its tributaries ? Which is 
older? Is there room for the small streams to increase much in length? Do 
the tributary valleys begin to develop at the main valley or back on the divide? 
Whv? Do they generally meet the larger valleys at a high or a low angle? 
Why? 

The Divides. 

f Describe the divide between Buck Creek and the Illinois River. Give 
the height of the divide above each stream. Is it broad or narrow, level or hilly ? 
In what way will the divide change as the valleys get older? 

Make a profile across the Illinois River Valley, along a line drawn on the map 
by the teacher, having the horizontal scale the same as the map; and a vertical 
scale of 1 cm. to ioo ft. 

When the Illinois River was the outlet of Lake Chicago its volume of water 
was much larger. At that time was its valley developing more or less rapidlv 
than it is at present? Was it able to carry more or less sediment than now? 
What became of the sediment when the stream decreased in volume? How deep 
has the terrace thus formed been cut by the present river? 

Culture. 

g What topographic conditions determine the location of Ottawa? Could 
either the Fox or the Illinois rivers be used for water power? Why does 
the Rock Island Railroad follow the river? Why does not the Burlington go 
straight south from Ottawa? Explain how it climbs out of the Fox River Val- 






ley at the north. The Illinois and Michigan Canal crosses the Fox River in an 
aqueduct. About how high above the river is the aqueduct? How is water 
obtained from the Fox River to “feed” the canal? Where are the wagon roads 
irregular? Why there? Are there any running parallel with the Illinois River 
on the top of the bluff near the edge? Give the reason. 

In what particular is the prairie adapted to the occupation of its inhabitants? 


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Exercise XL. 

A STUDY OF RIVER DEVELOPMENT. 

The Charleston, W. Va., sheet of the U. S. G. S. The same relief map of the 
United States used in Exercise XXXIX. 

(/) To comprehend the characteristics of a Mature Region. 

The area shown on this map is part of an extensive plateau reaching from New 
York to Alabama along the western border of the Appalachian Mountains. This 
plateau is known in the northern portion as the Catskill Mountains, in the inter¬ 
mediate portion as the Allegheny Plateau, and in the southern portion as the 
Cumberland Plateau. 

a Give the area covered by this map in square degrees and in square miles. 
What is the contour interval? Indicate the location of this area on the relief 
map. 

The Region. 

b Is the region level or hilly? How is this shown by the contour lines? By. 
the roads and railroads? 

c What is the altitude of Kanawha River at Lock 4 and at Lock 7? What 
is the direction of flow? What is the fall per mile? Is it a swift or slow stream? 

The River Valley. 

d Give the depth of the valley at Lock 5. What is the width of the flood plain 
as compared with the width of the stream ? What does this indicate as to the age 
of the river? 

e Note the bends in Kanawha River. Were they formed before or after the 
valley was made ? How is this shown ? What does this indicate as to the age of 
this region? 

f What do the following show as to age of this region as compared with the 
Ottawa region? Number of tributaries? Angle of tributaries with main stream? 
General topography? 

The Divides. 

g Obtain the height of the divides in different places in the southern portion 
of the sheet; then in several places in the northern portion. How do the divides 
in these areas compare with each other in height? The strata which compose 
the hills are horizontal. How were the hills made? Which was the earlier 
topography (level or hilly) and toward what direction was the slope? 
h Observe the curves in Coal River. Were they formed before or after Coal 
River cut its valley? How do you know? What do they show as to the earlier 
topography ? 

Culture. 

i Does the number of constant streams indicate a light or heavy rainfall? 
Among the strata of the hills are beds of coal. Why can it be easily mined here ? 
j Give the reasons for the location of Charleston. Find and name other simi¬ 
larly located towns and villages. Explain the location of roads and railroads. 




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Exercise XLI. 

A STUDY OF RIVER DEVELOPMENT. 

The Caldwell, Kansas, sheet of the U. S. G. S. The same relief map of the 
United States used in Exercise XL. Also the Ottawa and Charleston sheets for 
reference. 

(z) To comprehend the characteristics of an Old Region. 
a Give the contour interval and the scale of this map. 

b Give the area of the region represented by this map in square degrees and in 
square miles. Indicate the location of this region on the relief map. 

The Region. 

c Is the region level or hilly? How is this shown by the contour lines? Com¬ 
pare the contour lines of this map with those on the Ottawa and Charleston 
sheets. Which does the Caldwell sheet resemble more? Are the wagon roads 
and railroads confined to the valleys as in the region of Charleston? Give a 
reason for this. Are the railroads as straight as in the Ottawa region? Give a 
reason for this. 

The Valleys. 

d Compare the number of streams with the number in the Charleston area. 
What explanation can you give for this? Find some streams which are inter¬ 
mittent. What part of the stream is intermittent ? Why at that particular place ? 
Is the rainfall heavy or light ? 

e In what direction do the streams flow? What is the difference in the altitude 
of the Chikaskia River at the western and the eastern borders of the map? 

/ Compare the slopes of the valleys of even the smallest streams in the Caldwell 
area with those in the Ottawa and Charleston areas. In which of the three areas 
do the valleys show the most advanced age ? 

The Divides. 

f Is the general shape of the divides broad or sharp in the Caldwell area ? What 
is their form in the Ottawa area and in the Charleston area? Taken in connection 
with the shape of the stream valleys, what indication of the age of the region 
does this give and why? 

g Follow the course of the Chikaskia River across the map, looking for the evi¬ 
dences of falls and rapids. What is your conclusion as to the age of this region ? 
Give the other evidences of age which are to be found in the (i) angle at which 
the tributaries join the main stream; (2) prevalence of lakes and swamps. 

Culture. 

h To what occupation is this region suited? 

(2) To compare and describe the development of a region. 

By comparing the topographical characteristics of the Ottawa, the Charleston and 
the Caldwell regions write a description of the successive stages of youth, maturitv 
and old age through which a region passes which was formerly level and mod¬ 
erately elevated above the sea. The description should compare (1) general 
appearance of each region, (2) the valleys, (3) the divides, and (4) the culture 
of each region. 




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Exercise XLII. 

A STUDY OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

The Savanna, Iowa-Illinois sheet and the Donaldsonville, La., sheet of the U. S. 
G. S. Mississippi River sheet No. 14 of the Mississippi River Survey. The re¬ 
lief map of the United States used in the previous map study. Cross-section 
paper. 

(1) To study a typical river combining the essential characteristics of all rivers. 
A. Savanna (Iowa-Illinois) sheet. 

This sheet represents a portion of the Upper Mississippi River and the adjoining 
region directly west of Chicago. It lies almost wholly within the Driftless Area, 
but the present drainage is quite different from that which existed in this region 
before the Glacial Period. The out-washings from the glacial moraines filled the 
valley of the Mississippi River with sand and gravel to a depth of 150 feet. The 
lower courses of tributary streams were also filled to a corresponding depth. The 
upland is covered to a depth of iq to 20 feet with a deposit of fine soil called loess. 
Underneath this soil is a bed of limestone. 

The Region. 

a Indicate the location of this region on the relief map of the United States. Give 
its area in square degrees; in square miles. Give the scale and the contour interval 
of this map. 

b What does the broken line in the river denote ? What length of 
the river is shown on the sheet. (Measure along the broken line.) Give the 
average width of the river. (Measure where all the water flows through one 
channel.) 

The Valley. 

c Give the greatest and least width of the flood plain. Give evidences that the 
river is still widening its valley. Have the valley sides steep or gentle slopes where 
the river approaches them? How do the contours show this? How can you tell 
that the river is not cutting down into its flood plain to any extent? 
d What evidences are there that the river is usually overburdened with sediment ? 
Explain the presence of the short, wide flood plain tributaries three or four miles 
south of Savanna. What evidences do you see of a former channel along the 
eastern side of the flood plain below Savanna? Where do you see oxbow lakes, 
and of what streams were they probably once a part ? 

e How much of a rise in the river would inundate Sabula? What becomes of 
the water flowing down Rush Creek? What is the altitude of the base of the 
bluffs as shown by the heavy contour running along them? What is the altitude 
of the heavy contour at the top of the bluffs ? How high are the bluffs along the 
river here? What two tributaries have cut broad trenches through the bluffs on 
the east? What will gradually become of the bluffs? 

The Divides. 

f Do the contours on the upland run straight or crooked ? Does this fact denote a 
rough or a smooth country? Have the main divides been much roughened by 
erosion, or are they nearly smooth? Are they narrow or broad? Will they be¬ 
come broader or narrower ? Why ? 

Culture. 

g Do the main wagon roads follow the valleys or the divides? Why? In 
what stage of development will they be transferred? 

h Before the Glacial Period the upper part of Plum River flowed southeast¬ 
ward and the lower part flowed along the present course. How does the de¬ 
velopment of the present valley show where the old divide was located? 




i Make a profile across the Mississippi River Valley along the line A-B, mak¬ 
ing the vertical scale i cm. to ioo ft. and keeping horizontal scale the same as 
the sheet. 

B. Donaldsonville (La.) Sheet. 

This sheet represents a portion of the Mississippi River and adjoining flood 
plain in the lower part of its course. Natural levees have been formed along 
the river. Donaldsonville is 185 miles from the mouth of the river and 75 
miles above New Orleans. 

The Region. 

a Indicate this portion of the river on the relief map of the United States. 
Give the scale and £he coutour interval of this sheet. Does the use of a small 
contour interval denote a steep, a moderate or a gentle slope? Name the 
points at the most prominent bends in the river. 

The Valley. 

b How wide is the river between Port Barrow and Darrowville? 
c Within how many feet of sea level is the swamp flood-plain south of the 
river. On the east side of the sheet? Has the northeast swamp a greater or 
a less slope than the natural levee along the river? How is this shown? Can 
swamp land have a steep slope? Why? 

d Make a sketch of the river where it bends around Brilliant Point and draw 
a dotted line showing the position of the main current in the channel. From 
this sketch what reason can you give for the outbreak of Nita Crevasse? Why 
do the 10 and 15 foot contours curve toward the river as they pass the crevasse? 
Account for the alluvial deposit east of the crevasse. 

e Does the slope of the natural levee increase or decrease as one approaches 
the river from the swamp? Give a reason for this? Where is the farm land 
of this region situated? 

Culture. 

f What is the plan of the wagon roads? What determines the plan? On 
what roads are the most buildings located? Why? What direction do the 
small streams have relative to the river? Account for this. 
g The straight blue lines are ditches. Why are they necessary? Where do 
they carry the water? 

h Is the natural levee composed of fine or coarse material? Give a reason for 
this. What is the width of the natural levees including the river along the 
line A-B? 

i Make a profile across the levees and river along the line A-B; having the 
same horizontal scale as the map, and the vertical scale 1 cm. to 25 ft. Make 
a profile having a vertical scale of 1 cm. to 100 ft. to compare with the Savanna 
profile. 

C. Mississippi River Sheet, No. 14. 

This sheet represents a meandering portion of the Mississippi River in the 
Lower Alluvial Valley about 650 miles from the mouth. The distance below 
Cairo, the mouth of the Ohio river, is marked every 5 miles by figures in mid¬ 
stream. 

a Indicate this portion of the river on the relief map of the United States. 
b How many miles from Jones’ Landing to Sunnyside Landing? (Use a 
midstream distance.) What is the river distance between Offutt’s Landing and 
Sunnyside Landing? What is the straight distance between the same two land¬ 
ings? (Compare with the river distance.) 

c Why was it necessary to survey the river again after 12 years? Does 
the current line follow the outside or the inside of a bend? Why? On which 
side of a bend does the river cut into its bank ? Why ? In what part of a bend 
are bank bars usually formed? Why? Tell how Miller’s Bend furnishes 
examples proving the truth of your last three answers. 

d How far did the bank at Georgetown Bend wear back during the 12 years 
between the two surveys ? How much farther must the bank here be worn away 
to cut through the remaining neck of land? At the same rate of cutting when 


would the cut-off be formed? How many miles would the river be shortened 
by this cut-off? 

e What part of the width of the old channel at Rowdy Bend is filled by the 
more recent sand bar? How far back has Barnes’ Landing (a mile above 
Greenville) been moved? What now occupies the old channel at this place? 
f What has the river already done to Greenville? What may happen in time? 
How may it be prevented? 

g Make a sketch of a short portion of the river at Walker’s Bend as it was 
when Lake Chicot formed part of the channel. How did Lake Lee originate? 


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Exercise XLIII. 

THE CONTINENTAL ICE SHEET OF NORTH AMERICA. 

A map showing the centers and extent of the ice sheet. (See text.) A relief 
map of North America. 

(1) To represent the centers of origin and the extent of the continental ice 
sheet. 

On the relief map of North America mark the location of the following centers 
of origin by placing the name over the locality. 

1. The Labrador center just south of the Labrador Highlands, midway be¬ 
tween Newfoundland and the east shore of Hudson Bay. 

2. The Keewatin center just west of the most westerly shore line of Hudson 
Bay. 

3. The Pacific center just east of the Cascade mountain range opposite Queen 
Charlotte Island. 

By referring to the map of the ice sheet indicate carefully the exact location 
of the most southern extent of the ice sheet by a heavy line. 

Indicate the direction of the flow of ice by starting at each center and drawing 
light dashes away from the center in every direction. These should show that 
the ice from the Labrador and the Keewatin centers met over Hudson Bay 
and farther south over Lake Superior. From which center was New England 
covered? From which center was Illinois and Michigan covered? From 
which center was Wisconsin and Minnesota covered? 

Indicate the driftless area of Wisconsin which the ice did not cover. 

What effect did the ice sheet have upon the old mountain ranges of New Eng¬ 
land? What effect did the ice sheet have upon the mountains of Canada? Where 
did the ice sheet drop its load of soil? Account for the rich soil over the agri¬ 
cultural regions of the upper Mississippi Basin. Account for the numerous 
lakes in northwestern Canada. 




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Exercise XLIV. 

A STUDY OF GLACIAL TOPOGRAPHY—I. 

The Whitewater, Wisconsin, sheet of the U. S. G. S. The relief map of the 
United States used in Exercise XLII. 

(1) To comprehend the characteristics of a recent glaciated region. 

This sheet represents a part of the area covered in the latest glacial epoch. The 
slopes are usually not too steep for cultivation. Indicate the location of this 
sheet on the relief map of the United States and upon the glacial map of 
Exercise XLIII. 

A. The moraine covers the southeast third of the map. It is a portion of the 
“Kettle Moraine” left between two great lobes of the ice sheet, the Green Bay 
and the Michigan lobes. 

a Locate this moraine on a large map and name the towns on or near it. 
b What is its trend or direction of its length and its width on this sheet? 
(Measure across to the swamp in the southeast corner.) 

c How high are the hill tops above the sea? Above the marshes? Describe 
the shape of the hills. Are the hill tops broad or sharp ? Are the hollows regular 
or irregular? (Marked by depression contours.) What are their depths? Are 
they always occupied by water? Are they filled to overflowing, i. e., have they 
outlets? Were they produced by stream erosion? Give reasons for your 
answer. 

B. The drumlins are found in the northwest part of this region and were 
formed under the Green Bay lobe of the ice sheet. 

a Give their altitudes above the sea and above the marsh. Give the width and 
the length at the base of two or three of the most prominent. Are they broad 
or sharp topped ? What is their trend ? Compare with the trend of the moraine 
and with the direction of movement of the glacier. About how many drumlins 
are there in the 25 square miles south and west of Rome ? 

C. General topography. 

a Do any streams flow completely across the moraine ? 

b What evidence of erosion is there just south of Whitewater? At what other 
places is erosion noticeable? 

c Do the streams in the marshes erode much? Why? Is there any regularity 
in the distribution of marshes and lakes? Are they regular or irregular in 
shape? What will be their fate? Point out any that have clearly progressed 
toward this end. Indicate some marshes that could be artificially drained for 
agriculture. 

Culture. 

a Where are the roads greatly influenced by the topography? Where little? 
Do the wagon roads follow the high or the low lands ? The railroads ? Why this 
difference ? 

b What topographic reasons are there for the location of the villages here 
shown ? 

(A good-sized, dry, fairly level area lies just west of Whitewater.) 






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Exercise XLV. 

A STUDY OF GLACIAL TOPOGRAPHY—II. 

The St. Paul, Minnesota. Sheet of the U. S. G. S. The relief map of the 
United States used in the previous exercise. 

(/) To comprehend the effect of glaciation upon the development of rivers. 
This sheet represents a glaciated region in eastern Minnesota. It has been 
twice glaciated. The first glaciation was due to ice moving in from the east. 
This compelled the Mississippi River to move westward, where it made a gorge 
for itself west of Minneapolis. During the second glacial movement the ice 
came in from the west and northwest. This drove the river eastward, when it 
chose its present course. When the ice left, the river began to cut the gorge 
which extends from Ft. Snelling to the Falls of St. Anthony. The Minnesota 
River and the Mississippi River below the gorge occupy the old channel of the 
River Warren, which was the outlet of the glacial Lake Agassiz. 

The Region. 

a Locate this area on the relief map of the United States. What is the contour 
interval and the scale in this sheet ? Give the area of this sheet in square degrees 
and in square miles. 

The Valleys. 

b Make a cross section of the gorge of the Mississippi and of the Minnesota. 
Make the first section- one-half mile above the line marked 55' and parallel 
with it. Make the second section to cut the second “e” in “Hennepin” and the 
“o” in “Dakota,” and have it extend one mile back from the flood plain on either 
side. Compare the two cross sections. What is the width and depth of each? 
What is the height and slope of the bluffs? What is the width of each as com¬ 
pared with the width of its flood plain? 

c Give the fall in feet of the Mississippi River from the Falls of St. Anthony 
to the mouth of the gorge. Give the fall of the Minnesota River from the point 
where it enters the sheet to Pike Island. 

d Describe the divide between the Minnesota River and the gorge of the 
Mississippi River. Is it high or low above stream? Is it level or hilly? Is it 
broad or narrow? Will it ever change? Why? Which is the older, the Mis^ 
sissippi River or the Minnesota River at this place? Give your reason in full. 
e Notice the bench or terrace which appears on the east side of the Minnesota 
River at a height of about 780 feet above the sea. This is what remains of a mass 
of river-brought sediment, i. e., gravels, sand and silt, deposited in a pre-glacial 
gorge by waters coming from the melting ice. The gorge was filled throughout 
its length to the level of this terrace. The River Warren, which was the outlet 
of Lake Agassiz, cut into this material, thus forming the terrace. When the 
lake found an outlet to the north, the volume of water in the river was greatly 
reduced. It cannot now remove all the materials brought by its tributaries. 
During flood time the river spreads much of this material over its flood plain. 
What is the height of this terrace above the flood plain? What is its width? 
Find other terraces either along the Mississippi River or the Minnesota River. 
Locale them and give their height above the flood plain; also their length and 
width. Would the reasons given for the existence of the first terrace explain 
the others? 

River Action. 

What is its slope in feet per mile? Is its velocity great or little? Can it trans¬ 
port much or little material? How is its velocity affected when it reaches the 
flood plain? What becomes of the stream? What becomes of the material it 
carried? In flood time the Mississippi covers the marshes. How will the 
material brought down by the tributaries be affected? 




g Underneath the drift of the region is the hard Trenton limestone, and below 
this is the soft St. Peter’s sandstone. It is due to this hard capping that the 
walls of the Mississippi River keep their steep slope. Locate the Falls of Min¬ 
nehaha. What is its height? What keeps it a fall? Is the fall stationary or 
still cutting back? What will become of it if the water continues to flow 
over it? 

h What map previously studied had a moraine like that in Egab Township? 
Name the moraine. What maps showed are like that in Ramsey County ? Com¬ 
pare the surface of Egab Township with an equal area on the Charleston Sheet. 
In which is the drainage better developed ? Give your reasons. 

Culture. 

i What is the reason that Minneapolis was located where it is? Account for 
St. Paul’s location. (The river is navigable to St. Anthony’s Falls.) 


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Exercise. XLVI. 

A STUDY OF GLACIATED AND WATER-WASHED PEBBLES. 

A number of pebbles taken from undisturbed glacial drift. A number of as¬ 
sorted pebbles taken from a lake beach or river bed. A knitting needle or steel 
scratcher. A vial of hydrochloric acid and drop-rod. 

( 1 ) To be able to distinguish whether a region has been more recently glaciated 
or water-covered by the appearance of the surface pebbles. 

A. Glacial Pebbles. These pebbles were broken by the glacier from ledges of 
rock usually but little weathered. 

a Is there any uniformity in their size or form? 

b Of what kinds of rock are the pebbles composed? What does their com¬ 
position suggest about the localities from which the pebbles came? 
c What kind of rock predominates? What relation has this fact to the kind 
of rock underlying the region where the pebbles were collected? 
d In what ways did the glacier affect the surface of the pebbles? How dif¬ 
ferently are the stones of different hardness affected? Do you find more than 
one surface on any of the pebbles planed? Explain how this could be done. 
Are the striae on a surface all parallel ? Why ? 

e How do you explain the fact that some pebbles are sharp angled and ir¬ 
regular, while others are completely smoothed ? What variety is usually angular ? 
f In a specimen which has been broken in two, do you find the interior dif¬ 
fering from the outside in color or hardness? What does this denote as to 
weathering ? 

B. Water-washed Pebbles. These pebbles were washed about by the water 
and considerably eroded by waves or currents. 

a Do these pebbles show the planed surfaces and the striae made by the glacier ? 
Give the reason. 

b Do you find these pebbles differing in kind from those in the glacial collec¬ 
tion? What kinds are there? 

c Did the water wear these pebbles by sliding them or rolling them? Do some 
of them show one sort of movement and the others another movement? The 
pebbles are approximately what shapes or tending toward what general shapes? 
What are the causes for each shape? 

d If you see any differences in the effect of the water’s work on the different 
kinds of rock, state what it is and explain why it is. Explain the reason for 
depressions, projections, etc., found prominent on the surface of the pebbles. 
e In specimens broken in two, how does the interior differ from the exterior in 
color, hardness, etc.? To what depth has the weathering penetrated? Com¬ 
pare \vith the glacial pebbles in this respect. 




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Exercise XLVII. 

A STUDY OF SHORE LINES—I. 

The Atlantic City, New Jersey Sheet of the U. S. G. S. The relief map of 
the United States used in the previous exercises for locating the regions. Cross- 
section paper. 

(j) To comprehend the characteristics of an old, worn coast. 

This sheet represents a portion of a gently sloping sandy plain meeting the open 
sea. 

a Give the scale and contour interval of this map. Give the area in square 
degrees and in square miles of the area represented. Indicate the location of 
this region on the relief map of the United States. 

b Give the name of each beach, its length, its average width and its altitude. 
How were the beaches formed ? Where did the material come from ? What dis¬ 
tance are the beaches from the mainland ? What fixed this distance ? Is a large 
or a small portion of the beach more than io feet in altitude? How were the 
small hills (dunes) formed? Does the end of the beach generally hook toward 
or from the land? Why? 
c Explain the presence of the inlets. 

d Draw a line to represent the outer margin of Brigantine Beach; another to 
represent the inner margin. Give a reason for the difference. 
e Is the boundary line between the mainland and the marsh fairly straight or 
very crooked? Why? 

f Are the bays increasing or decreasing in depth and extent ? By what means ? 
What once occupied the space between the beach and the mainland? What will 
this area become in time? 

g Could one go in a small boat from the northeast to the southwest part of 
the map through enclosed waterways? What is the significance of the word 
“thorofare”? 

li Make a map of the marsh extending a mile and a half northwest from 
Atlantic City, to show the distribution and form of small tidal creeks. 
i From the figures written on the map, indicating depth in feet, do you observe 
a perfectly uniform or a somewhat irregular slope of the sea bottom? Why 
does the channel into Great Bay come from the south instead of from straight 
east? 

/ Make a profile of the land and a cross-section of the water from Leeds Point 
east through New Inlet having the horizontal scale the same as the map and the 
vertical scale i cm. to 50 feet. 

k If the coast should rise ten feet what difference would it make in the general 
appearance of the coast? Would new beaches result? 

Culture. 

/ Why are there no commercial cities between Sandy Hook and Cape May? 
(See a large map.) 

m Give two reasons for Atlantic City’s being such a famous summer resort. 
Why did it grow up where it is rather than on one of the other beaches? 
n How far apart are the life-saving stations Why is there need of so many 
here ? 




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Exercise XLVIII. 

A STUDY OF SHORE LINES—II. 

The Boothbay, Maine, Sheet of the U. S. G. S. The United States relief map 
used in the previous exercise. 

(/) To comprehend the characteristics of a young coast. 

The land is composed of hard, massive rock and a thin glacial detritus scattered 
unevenly over the surface. 

a Give the scale and contour interval of this map. Give the area in square 
miles and in square degrees of the region represented. Indicate the location of 
this region on the relief map of the United States. What is the direction and 
distance of Boothbay from Portland? 

b What is the most noticeable characteristic of the topography? Give the 
altitude of several of the large hills. Have they flat or pointed tops? Are the 
valleys narrow or wide? Give the trend of the hill ranges. The valleys extend 
111 what direction? The glaciers moved in what direction? See Cushman Hill, 
Barter Island, and Big Hill for indications of the glacial movement. 
c What is the general shape of the large islands? Their height? Compare 
with the hills of the mainland. What trend have the peninsulas and large is¬ 
lands? What is their position with reference to the hill ranges of the mainland? 
How were they produced ? 

d Make an outline of Big Hill peninsula (south of Boothbay village) and 
shade the portion that would be covered by water if the land should sink ioo 
feet. If Barter Island should sink ioo feet, how many islands would be formed 
from it? If the entire region should sink ioo feet, what would become of some 
of the low islands? Of some of the peninsulas? 
e Why have the two large rivers on this sheet no perceptible slope? 
f Describe the bays as to their form and depth with those of the Atlantic City 
region. How were they produced here? 

g Why are marshes not extensive or abundant here? Why not beaches? 
Why is the coast line so irregular ? Would the coast become more or less regular 
if it should sink ioo feet? What effect would it have upon its regularity if the 
coast should rise ioo feet? 

Culture. 

h Why is this coast more thickly settled than the New Jersey coast? Why 
are there not many life saving stations here? Why were ship building and 
fishing once the leading occupations? Is travel easier east and west, or north and 
south? Why? Explain the locations of villages. 

i Make a cross section of the bay from Damiscove Island west; having the 
horizontal scale the same as on map and the vertical 5 fathoms 1 cm. Explain 
the shallow water near the middle. 




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Exercise XLIX. 

A STUDY OF SHORE LINES—III. 

A relief map of the United States. 

(/) To identify the coasts as young or old according to the prevailing charac¬ 
teristics. 

Tell of each of the coasts along the Southeastern Coast of the United States, 
the California Coast, the New England Coast, whether it is a young or old coast 
and whether it has been recently rising or sinking, 




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Exercise L. 

A STUDY OF A PLAIN. 

The Wicomico, Maryland—Virginia, Sheet of the U. S. G. S. The relief map 
of the United States used in previous exercises. 

(/) To comprehend the topographic characteristics of a plain. 

This sheet represents a portion of the Atlantic Coastal Plain within the area of 
submergence west of Chesapeake Bay. The soil is arranged in at least five well 
defined layers, showing as many submergences and corresponding re-elevations, 
and on the upland or divides is about 500 feet thick. It consists largely of clay, 
marl, Fuller’s earth, sand and gravel. Underneath the soil is a floor of crystal¬ 
line rock similar in formation to that of the Piedmont region farther west. 

The Region. 

a Locate this region on the relief map of the United States. What is the scale 
of the map? How many square miles does the sheet represent? What is its 
contour interval? Are the contours much crowded on the sheet? What does 
this indicate as to steepness of slope? 

The Valleys and Marshes. 

b Are the banks of the large rivers high or low? Within how many feet of 
sea level is the salt marsh everywhere, as shown by the contours? Why are 
salt marshes found so far up these rivers from the sea? 

c How wide is Wicomico River? How long? Why is the width so great in 
proportion to the length? Has the river any perceptible slope? Why? Is 
the river being deepened or filled? Give the reason. The large valleys coming 
down from the north into the Wicomico River are not so deep as formerly. How 
were they filled? What accident prevents further deepening? 
d Why are Zekiah, Gilbert and Chaptico swamps fresh and not salt marshes? 
What is the average width of Zekiah swamp ? Gilbert swamp ? What reason can , 
you give for Gilbert swamp being so wide at one place ? Where might a similar 
widening occur in Zekiah swamp? What has prevented this? About how far 
below the upland divides are these swamps? Did the same general accident 
affect the minor streams to any extent? Why? Where is much of the sediment 
which they carry deposited? What has resulted from this? Have these small 
streams developed much of a flood plain? Where? Why there? Can these 
streams get much longer? Why? 

e Give length, total fall and slope per mile of Pope, Budd and Chaptico Creeks. 
Make a longitudinal profile of Budd Creek, following the upper western fork. 
(Follow the creek with the edge of the paper as you lay off the contours.) 
Make the horizontal scale the same as the sheet and the vertical scale 1 cm. to 
100 ft. Where is the slope steep? Where gentle? Where is most vertical 
erosion being done ? Where least ? Why ? 

The Divides. 

f Where does the Potomac River show high, steep banks or bluffs? How are 
the bluffs being destroyed? Flow far back from the river are the bluffs at 
Ludlow Ferry? Are these as steep as those near the river? Give a reason for 
the difference. How many main divides are shown on the sheet? About how 
high are they above sea level? Are they broad or narrow? Even or uneven? 
What change will they naturally undergo? 

Culture. 

a Are the wagon roads planned to follow divides or valleys? Why? When, 
ff ever, will thev be changed to the other position? What valleys already have 
roads?' Why? Do the railroads here generally follow divides or valleys? Why? 
Why does the B. & P. R. R. follow Pope Creek Valley to Faulkner instead of 
taking a more direct route across the upland? 

h Of what value, aside from farming, are the soil formations of this region? 
i Judging from the past history of this region, what may one predict as to its 
future ? 





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Exercise LI. 

A STUDY OF A PLATEAU. 

The Kaibab, Arizona, Sheet of the U. S. G. S. The relief map of the United 
States used in the previous exercises. Moulding Sand. 

(j) To comprehend the topographic characteristics of a plateau. 

This sheet represents about 75 miles of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River 
in the high plateau of northern Arizona. The most accessible trail down the 
canyon is on the southern side opposite the mouth of Bright Angel Creek. 

The Region. 

a What is the area of this sheet in square miles ? In square degrees ? Indicate 
the location of this region upon the relief map of the United States. What is 
the contour interval ? What must be the character of the slope represented by . 
such an interval? What is the scale on this sheet? 

The Plateaus. 

b Name the four plateaus on the sheet and give the altitude of each by its 
highest thousandth contour. How far below Powell’s Plateau is the Colorado 
River? How are the plateaus separated from each other? How will the plateaus 
become still more widely separated? How closely were they probably connected 
at one time? 

c How wide at the top and how deep is the valley separating Powell’s Plateau 
from the region eastward? Tell where the larger plateaus are being dissected. 

The Valleys. 

d Considering the large area represented on this sheet, are there many or few f 
streams? Many or few stream valleys? Why are so many of the valleys dry? 1 
What change in climate does this indicate? Why has the Colorado River such 
a deep valley here ? What is the character of the valley as shown by the numer- ,! 
our contours running along so near to the river? If this region had a moist 
climate, how would the shape of the valleys differ from that represented on the 
sheet ? 

e Note that two gorges are shown, an inner and an outer. Where are both 
gorges well shown? What tributaries also show both? These gorges show r 
that what kind of an accident has happened here during the life of the river? 
f How wide is the Colorado Canyon just above the Cataract Creek Canyon? 
How deep is the canyon here? At what depth does the inner gorge begin? 
How deep is the inner gorge? Make a profile across the canyon at this same 
place, using the following data, with the horizontal scale four times that of the 
map and the vertical scale of 1 cm. to 1,000 ft. 


m Starting Pt. 

Alt. 

Dist. from Starting Pt. 

Alt. 

.0 cm. 

6250 ft. 

8.8 cm. 

River 

1.8 “ 

6250 “ 

9.0 “ 

2000 ft. 

2.8 “ 

5000 “ 

10.0 “ 

4000 “ 

7.0 “ 

4000 “ 

14.1 “ 

5000 “ 

74 “ 

3000 “ 

15.2 “ 

6250 « 

8.1 “ 

2000 “ 

17.0 “ 

6250 “ 

8.2 “ 

River 




Culture. 

g Why are the springs so carefully located on this sheet ? Is this region better 
adapted for farming or stock raising? Why? 

(2) To represent the characteristics of the plateau and canyon by a model. 

Take about six pounds of moulding sand. Dampen the sand slightly. Mix the 
sand thoroughly and pulvarize it between the fingers until it is fine and soft and 
just damp enough to hold its form when pressed. Beginning with the region ] 
about Cataract Creek Canyon build up the sand on each side of the canyon until 
the plateau and canvon are well represented to show the relative depth and width 
of the canyon with its gorges. 








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Exercise LII. 

A STUDY OF MOUNTAIN TOPOGRAPHY. 

The Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, Sheet of the U. S. G. S. The relief map of the 
United States used in the previous exercises. Moulding sand. 

(1) To comprehend the topography of the Appalachian Mountains in this region. 
This sheet represents a portion of the Appalachian Ridges in southeastern Penn¬ 
sylvania. The rock strata of this region, consisting of hard sandstones and 
conglomerates alternating with softer limestones and shales, were once bent into 
a synclinal fold and afterwards greatly eroded. 

a Indicate the location of this region on the United States relief map. What 
is the scale of the map? How many square miles are represented on the sheet? 
What is its contour interval? Why could not a smaller interval be used on this 
sheet ? 

b What is the river distance between Half Falls and the 300 contour line above 
Harrisburg? What is the slope per mile? Why was a canal built along the 
river here? How long is the Pennsylvania Railroad bridge at Ft. Hunter? 
c Harrisburg is situated on land that was probably once an island in the river. 
How does the sheet show this? What stream now occupies the east side of the 
former island ? How many feet must the river rise to make Harrisburg an island 
town? In what respect does Haldeman Island resemble the former conditions 
at Harrisburg? Under what conditions will Haldeman Island become a part 
of the mainland?, How high is Haldeman Island above the river? How high 
above the river is the State Capitol at Harrisburg? Also the State Lunatic 
Asylum north of Harrisburg? 

d Name the four prominent ridges east of the river and give the direction of 
trend and the altitude of each by its highest hundred contour line. About how 
far are the tops of the ridges apart ? How far is it from the top of Peters Moun¬ 
tain to the top of Blue Mountain ? What kind of rocks compose the ridges ? The 
valleys? (See the introduction.) Give your reason for the answers. 
e Is the Susquehanna River relatively wide or narrow at the water gaps ? Why ? 
Why are there no islands in the gaps? 

f Are the tops of the ridges roughened more or less than their base by erosion ? 
Which ridge shows least roughening? 

g One side of Peters Mountain and of Second Mountain is composed entirely 
of rock of uniform hardness; the other side of each consists of rock differing in 
hardness. How can this be determined from the sheet ? What is being developed 
along the base of some of the ridges ? Where is this best shown ? 
h How much slope per mile has Stony Creek on the sheet ? (Measure a straight 
line from the margin of the map to the mouth of the creek and add two miles 
for windings.) Does the slope of the valleys of the creek on this sheet show that 
the streams are still deepening their channels? Is it probable that the ridges are 
being lowered as fast as the valley ? Why ? How will this affect the relief of this 
region? When will the height of the ridges above the valleys be greatest? 
What will the topography afterwards become? 

i Manv of the creeks have very meandering courses near their mouths and flow in 
narrow "gorges cut a hundred feet in the bottom of broad valleys. Account for 
these facts. How do you account for the present general topography of this 
region if at one time after the original folding it was worn down to a nearly 
level plain? 

j What is the average height of the plateau region south of Blue Mountain? 
Do the contours show that this region is rough or smooth ? How does the plan 
of the wagon roads show this? Why do the railroads usually follow streams 
in a country like this? What exception is shown? Explain it. 
k What mining industries are carried on in this and adjacent portions of the 




Alleghany Mountains? What part of the region represented on this sheet is 
suitable for farming? 

/ Show by a profile the character of the water gap between Second Mountain 
and Cove Mountain. Follow the center of each ridge about three miles back from 
the river. Use only the hundredth contours for data. Make the horizontal scale 
the same as the sheet and the vertical scale i cm. to 500 ft. Make a profile from 
Powell's Creek southeastward across the ridges, using the following approxi¬ 
mate data: Vertical scale of 1 cm. to 500 ft. This will make the ridges about 
four times too high. On the same base make a profile with a vertical scale of 
I cm. to 2,000 ft., which will give a nearly natural scale. 


Stations. 

Dist. from Starting Point. 

Alt. 

Powell Creek 

.0 cm. 

400 ft, 

Peter’s Mt. 

1.8 “ 

1300 “ 

Clark Creek 

3-2 “ 

400 “ 

Third Mt. 

5-6 “ 

1200 “ 

Stony Creek 

8.0 “ 

400 “ 

Second Mt. 

9.6 “ 

1300 “ 

Fishing Creek 

11.8 " 

400 “ 

Blue Mt. 

15.0 “ 

1300 “ 

Mt. Paxton Creek 

17.0 “ 

500 “ 


(2) To represent the characteristic surface features of this region by a model. 
Build up a small sand model of the region around Second Mountain and Cove 
Mountain to show the relative height and width of the water gap and the 
height of the mountains. 


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Exercise LIII. 

A STUDY OF MOUNTAIN TOPOGRAPHY—II. 

The Anthracite, Colorado, Sheet of the U. S. G. S. The relief map of the United 
States used in the previous exercises. Moulding sand. 

(1) To comprehend the surface features of the Rocky Mountains in comparison 
with the Appalachians. 

Though the Rocky Mountains have no such uniformity of structure as occurs 
in the Northern Appalachians, their more common forms may be fairly typified 
by this sheet. The rocks of this region are generally sedimentary and either 
horizontal or open-folded. They contain some valuable coal beds. The whole 
region is traversed by many intersecting faults, usually of less than 100 feet dis¬ 
placement. Extensive igneous masses lie between and above the sedimentary 
formations and usually make the higher mountain masses, such as Mt. Carbon, 
Mt. Axtell, Anthracite Range, Mt. Beckwith, Storm Ridge, Mt. Marcellina and 
Gothic Mountain. Dikes are abundant, forming the crests of the Ruby Range 
and making sharp ridges down the flanks of the mountain and across the valleys. 
Mt. Emmons, Peeler and Garfield Peaks, Anthracite Mesa and the ridge extend¬ 
ing southeast from Schuylkill Mountain are sedimentary, mostly sandstone and 
shale. 

a Indicate the location of this region on the United States relief map. By aid 
of a large map answer the following questions: In what part of Colorado is 
this region? In what direction and how far from Denver is the Anthracite 
Range? Of what large mountain range is this a part? What river system 
drains its eastern flank? What its northern? What its southern? 
b What scale is used on this sheet? What is its contour interval? Why would 
not a 20-foot contour interval be suitable for this map ? 

c Give the length of the Anthracite Range from Beckwith Pass to Ohio Pass. 
Give its width from Swampy Pass to Anthracite Creek. Give the length of Ruby 
Range from Anthracite Creek to the north border of the map. Give its width 
from Anthracite Creek to Robinson Basin. 

d What is the age of the streams of this region? Give the characteristics by 
which they show their age. What marked differences are there between the 
valleys of Ohio Creek, Oh-Be-Joyful Gulch and Slate River on the one hand 
and the lower part of Anthracite Creek and Cliff Creek on the other ? Which are 
cutting into igneous and which into sedimentary rock? 

e (a) Name four passes and give the altitude of each, (b) Make a profile along 
the road or creek from Mt. Carbon P. O. to Irwin, having the same horizontal 
scale as the map and a vertical scale of 500 ft. to 1 cm. May there be any marshy 
land in a pass? Why? 

f Where in general do the wagon roads, trails and railroads run? 
g The location of villages is determined largely by the accessibility of workable 
coal mines. What other features influence their locations? Note particularly 
Irwin. 

h What are the most marked differences between the ridges of this region and 
those in the Appalachian Mountains you studied as to length, width, height, 
crest line and general arrangement? 

i Which mountain system has been worn down the most? Which is the older 
of the two systems? 

(2) To represent the characteristic surface features of this region by a model. 
Beginning with the Anthracite Range build a sand model on approximately the 
same scale as you used in Exercise LIT. The model should show the relative 
height of mountains and depth and width of valleys. 




Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mentzer & Grover. 


Material. 


Name — 
Address- 


Exercise LIV. 

A STUDY OF A VOLCANO. 

The Mount Shasta, California, Sheet of the U. S. G. S. The United States 
relief map used in the previous exercises. 

(/) To comprehend the topographic differences between a folded mountain and 
a volcano. 

a Indicate the location of this area on the United States relief map. What 
scale is used in this sheet ? How many square miles are here represented ? What 
is the contour interval on this sheet? 

b In what range of mountains is Mount Shasta situated? What is the height 
of its summit above the sea? Above the Sacramento River? What about the- 
form of the mountain shows it to be of volcanic origin? What is the diameter 
of the mountain from the Sacramento River to the northeast corner of the map ? 
How does the slope at the top compare with that near the base? Would you 
imagine this to be an active or an extinct volcano? Why? 

c Locate Lava Park. Would the steepness of its sides show the lava which 
formed it to be thin or thick? Do you think this lava came from the top of Mt. 
Shasta or from some place in its side? Why? Observe Lava Flow on the 
western slope. At what height did this lava flow issue from the volcano? Was 
it thick or thin? The lava flows of which these are types are called coulees and 
are the most common form of addition to Mt. Shasta. Was the lava which 
made up the base layers of Mount Shasta more or less fluid than that which 
made up the top layers ? Might any other cause explain the great areas of these 
lower layers? 

d Scattered over the mountain in various places are cinder cones. What is the 
general shape of these cones? Find the areas of two or three. When the 
material composing them was sent out was it in a solid or a liquid form? Was 
the eruption which sent it forth explosive or quiet? Is all the material which 
builds up a volcano sent forth from the crater? Does the same volcano always 
send out the same kind of material? 

e How far apart do the two summits lie ? How much higher is Mt. Shasta than 
Shastina? Since the glaciers on Shasta extend far below the summit of Shastina 
why has not Shastina glaciers also? On which side of the mountain are the 
glaciers largest and most numerous ? Can you give any reason for this ? Why , 
should the summit of the volcano be free from snow? Why should the surface 
of the glacier be represented by curved lines? What kind of moraine is repre¬ 
sented upon the map ? 

f Hew are the mountain streams principally fed? Do you find any other 
source of supply? Account for the great number of intermittent streams. At 
what time of the year do the streams carry the most water? Why? Notice the 
cliff (see legend) between the glaciers. Does it show much or little cutting by 
the glacier? 

g Can you frame a theory to account for the disappearance of Inconstance 
Creek? Trace Mud Creek from its origin to where it leaves the map. It is 
turbid and muddy, as its name implies. Squaw Creek to the west is a clear 
stream. Can you offer any explanation of this difference? 




h Construct a profile of Mt. Shasta from west to east with a vertical scale of 
I cm to 5,000 ft. This gives a nearly natural scale. 


Distances, 
o cm. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

7-5 


Altitudes. 
4000 ft. 
4800 “ 


5500 
6300 “ 

7300 “ 

12433 “ 

11950 •* 

13000 “ 

14380 “ 

12500 “ 

9 “ 9800 “ 

10 “ 8500 “ 

11 “ 7500 “ 

6700 “ 

13 “ 5800 “ 

14 “ 5200 “ 

15.6“ 4000 “ 

(2) To represent the volcanic form of Mount Shasta by a model. 

Build a small sand model of Mount Shasta, beginning by building up to the 
highest portions and moulding the surface features down from this higher 
altitude to show the relative height and steepness of slope. 



Copyright, 1905, by Atkinson, Mentzer & Grover. 


Material. 


Name — 
Address- 


Exercise LV. 

THE LOCATION OF VOLCANOES. 

A map showing the iocation of volcanoes over the earth’s surface. An outline 
map of the earth on Mercator’s projection. 

(/) To study the distribution of active volcanoes relative to new and old 
mountain systems. 

By dots represent the location of all active volcanoes and volcanic regions. 
a What is noticeable concerning the location of volcanoes relative to the sea 
coasts? About what ocean are they most prevalent? 

b How are the islands, three hundred miles or more distant from the coasts, 
formed? Describe the processes by which a volcano might build up an island 
from the sea floor. 

c Are the volcanoes, along the coasts, located in the young or in the old 
mountain systems? Account for this fact. 





Ti* l ‘ 


79 




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Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON, MENTZER A GROVER, Chicago. 






















































































































































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Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON, MENTZER A GROVER, Chicago. 



THE WORLD 

ON MCRtRTOR S PROJECTION 


















































Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON, MENTZER & GROVER, Chicago. 



no 















































































































































































Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSOX, MENTZER & GROVER, Chicago. 





































































































































































































































































































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Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON, MENTZER & GROVER, Chicago. 






















































Copyrighted 1605 by ATKINSON, MENTZER & GROVER, Chicago. 





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Copyrighted 1906 by ATKINSON, MENTZER A GROVER, Chicago. 









































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Copyrighted 1906 by ATKINSON, MENTZER A GROVER, Chicago. 



ON MCREATOR S PROJECTION. 










































| ' . : I • 

























































































































































Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON, MENTZER & GROVER, Chicago' 



















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Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON, MENTZER & GROVER, Chicago' 


























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Copyrighted W05 by ATKINSON, MENTZER A GROVER, Chicago. 






























































































































Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON, MENTZER & GROVER, Chicago. 





















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































Edmonton 


Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON, MENTZER & GROVER. Chicago. 







































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































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Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON, MENTZER &2GROVER, Chicago. 









































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































♦ 


Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON. MENTZER A GROVER, Chicago. 


DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRBCTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

x KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

Cc 

O 

UJ CE 

HI 
t- -J 

V) u 

O 

at 

u_ 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY. LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 


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Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON, MENTZER A GROVER, Chicapo. 


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DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST. DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 


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Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON, MENTZER & GROVER, Chicago. 




DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 


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Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON, MENTZER A OROVER, Chicago. 


DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER, 


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Copyrighted IW5 by ATKINSON, MENTZKR <* GROVER, Chicago. 


DATE 

• 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINOS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER, 


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Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON, MENTZER A GROVER, Chicago. 


DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 


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Copyrighted 1905 by ATKINSON, MENTZER & GROVER, Chicago. 


DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINOS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY. LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 


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Copyrighted 1906 by ATKINSON, MENTZER & GROVER, Chicapo. 


DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BULB 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUDY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY, LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 


Mon. 

















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Copyrifhted 1606 by ATKINSON, MENTZER A GROVER, Chicapo. 


DATE 

DAY 

HOUR OF DAY 

• 

TEMPERATURE 

BAROMETRIC 

PRESSURE 

DRY BULB 

THERMOMETER 

WET BUL8 

THERMOMETER 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

DIRECTION OF WIND 

VELOCITY OF WIND 

PERCENTAGE OF 

DAYS CLOUOY 

KINDS OF CLOUDS 

FORM OF 

PRECIPITATION 

AMOUNT OF 

PRECIPITATION 

FROST, DEW OR 

CLEAR 

SUNSET COLORS 

HEAVY. LIGHT OR 

NO COLORATION 

POSITION OF 

STORM CENTER. 



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